Big Bang First atoms First stars & galaxies Elements forged in stars Milky Way Sun & Earth form Moon forms First life Photosynthesis Great Oxidation Complex cells Multicellular life Snowball Earth Ediacaran life Cambrian explosion Life on land Coal forests Pangaea The Great Dying Dinosaurs Dinosaur extinction First hominins Lucy Neanderthals Homo sapiens Blombos Cave Out of Africa Reaching Australia Cave art First Americans Dogs domesticated Ice Age ends Farming begins Göbekli Tepe Farming in China Çatalhöyük Maize in Mexico Sumer Writing Bronze Age Ancient Egypt Stonehenge Caral (Peru) Indus Valley Pyramids of Giza Hammurabi's Code Shang China Vedic India Bantu expansion Trojan War Bronze Age collapse Olmec Iron Age Zhou dynasty Israel & Judah Assyria & Babylon Axial Age Ancient Greece Confucius Persian Empire Roman Republic Athenian democracy Daoism The Buddha Greek philosophy Ashoka Qin Shi Huang Great Wall Han China Silk Road Julius Caesar Roman Empire Jesus Christianity Aksum Classic Maya Constantine Gupta Empire Byzantium Fall of Rome Islam Tang China Caliphates Sunni–Shia split Ghana Empire Islamic Golden Age Vikings Charlemagne Angkor (Khmer Empire) Gunpowder Song China Polynesian voyages Movable type Crusades Great Zimbabwe Kamakura shogunate Mongol Empire Magna Carta Mali Empire Ottoman Empire Mansa Musa Black Death Ming China Joseon Korea Renaissance Zheng He Aztec Empire Inca Empire Hangul Printing press Fall of Constantinople Columbus, 1492 Columbian Exchange Da Gama reaches India Atlantic slave trade Reformation Martin Luther Epidemics in Americas Around the world Spanish conquest Mughal Empire Scientific Revolution Tsarist Russia Colonial America East India Companies Thirty Years' War Qing China Enlightenment Newton's Principia Locke's natural rights Industrial Revolution American Revolution Wealth of Nations US Constitution French Revolution Haitian Revolution Vaccines & germ theory Napoleon Abolition Latin America independent Simón Bolívar Opium Wars Communist Manifesto Nationalism Women's suffrage Taiping Rebellion British Raj Darwin's evolution US Civil War Meiji Restoration Steel, oil & electricity New Imperialism Scramble for Africa Japan rules Korea World War I Russian Revolution Treaty of Versailles Gandhi Soviet Union Fascism & Nazism Great Depression World War II Holocaust Pearl Harbor Stalingrad D-Day United Nations Cold War India independent Israel founded, 1948 Chinese Revolution Korean War Civil rights movement Vietnam War Space race African independence Cuban Missile Crisis Moon landing Iranian Revolution China's reforms HIV/AIDS Berlin Wall falls Globalization USSR collapses World Wide Web Climate change European Union Rwandan genocide 9/11 attacks Afghanistan & Iraq wars Smartphones 2008 crash Arab Spring AI boom COVID-19 War in Ukraine The cosmos 13.8 – 4.6 billion years ago Earth & early life 4.6 billion – 541 million years ago Complex life 541 – 7 million years ago Human origins 7 million years ago – 10,000 BC First civilizations 10,000 – 800 BC
Universe & Earth
Life & early humans
Middle East & Africa
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13.8 – 4.6 billion years ago
From the Big Bang to the birth of the Sun and Earth.
Big Bang13.8 billion years ago First atomsc. 380,000 years after the Big Bang First stars & galaxiesfirst stars c. 13.6 billion years ago (100–200 million years after the Big Bang); galaxies by c. 13.5 billion (seen by the Webb telescope) Elements forged in starssince the first stars exploded, over 13 billion years ago Milky Wayoldest parts c. 13 billion years old; disk built over billions of years
4.6 billion – 541 million years ago
A molten planet cools; life appears and changes the air.
Sun & Earth formSun c. 4.6 billion years ago; Earth c. 4.54 billion Moon formsc. 4.5 billion years ago, probably in a giant impact First lifeby 3.5 billion years ago; possibly 3.7–4.1 billion Photosynthesisby c. 2.7–3 billion years ago Great Oxidationc. 2.4–2.1 billion years ago Complex cellsc. 2–1.6 billion years ago Multicellular lifesimple forms by c. 1.6 billion years ago; animals by c. 600 million Snowball Earthc. 720–635 million years ago Ediacaran lifec. 575–539 million years ago
541 – 7 million years ago
Animals, plants, dinosaurs, mass extinctions and the rise of mammals.
Cambrian explosionc. 539–515 million years ago Life on landplants c. 470 million years ago; animals soon after Coal forestsc. 359–299 million years ago Pangaeaassembled c. 335 million years ago; split apart from c. 200 million The Great Dyingc. 252 million years ago Dinosaursc. 230–66 million years ago First mammalsc. 225–200 million years ago Dinosaur extinction66 million years ago First primatesc. 66–56 million years ago
7 million years ago – 10,000 BC
From the first upright apes to Homo sapiens spreading across the world.
First homininsc. 7–6 million years ago, Africa First stone toolsc. 3.3 million years ago (Lomekwi, Kenya) Lucylived c. 3.2 million years ago; found in Ethiopia, 1974 Homo erectusc. 1.9 million – c. 110,000 years ago Firec. 1 million years ago (Wonderwerk Cave); routine by c. 400,000 Neanderthalsc. 400,000–40,000 years ago Homo sapiensc. 300,000 years ago (oldest fossils, Morocco) Blombos Cavec. 100,000–75,000 years ago, South Africa Out of Africamain dispersal c. 70,000–50,000 years ago Reaching Australiaby c. 50,000 years ago (possibly 65,000) Cave artfrom c. 51,000 years ago (Sulawesi); Chauvet c. 36,000; Lascaux c. 17,000 First Americansby c. 16,000 years ago; perhaps 23,000 (White Sands footprints) Dogs domesticatedby c. 15,000 years ago, perhaps much earlier Ice Age endswarming from c. 14,700 years ago; Holocene begins c. 9700 BC
10,000 – 800 BC
Farming, cities, writing, kings and the first empires.
Farming beginsfrom c. 9500 BC in the Fertile Crescent; independently in China, Mexico, the Andes and elsewhere Göbekli Tepec. 9500–8000 BC Farming in Chinamillet and rice domesticated c. 8000–5000 BC Çatalhöyükc. 7100–5950 BC Maize in Mexicoc. 7000 BC (about 9,000 years ago) SumerUruk, the first true city, c. 4000 BC; Sumerian cities to c. 2000 BC Bronze Agec. 3300–1200 BC in the Near East Writingc. 3300 BC in Sumer (cuneiform); independently in China and Mesoamerica Ancient Egyptc. 3100–30 BC (New Kingdom peak c. 1550–1070 BC) Stonehengec. 3000–1500 BC (great stones raised c. 2500 BC) Caral (Peru)c. 3000–1800 BC Indus Valleyc. 2600–1900 BC (mature phase) Pyramids of Gizac. 2600–2500 BC (Great Pyramid c. 2560 BC) Kingdom of Kushc. 2500 BC – AD 350 (Kerma, Napata, Meroë) Akkadian Empirec. 2334–2154 BC Gilgamesholdest tales c. 2100 BC Hammurabi's Codec. 1754 BC, Babylon Shang Chinac. 1600–1046 BC Vedic Indiac. 1500–500 BC (Rigveda) Bantu expansionc. 1500 BC – AD 500 (start debated) Bronze Age collapsec. 1200–1150 BC Olmecc. 1200–400 BC Trojan Warc. 1200 BC (traditional); historicity uncertain Iron Agefrom c. 1200 BC in the Near East (earlier among the Hittites); West Africa and China by c. 800–500 BC Alphabetc. 1050 BC (roots in Egypt and Sinai c. 1850 BC) Zhou dynasty1046–256 BC Israel & Judahc. 1000–586 BC (a united kingdom under David and Solomon is debated) Assyria & BabylonAssyrian Empire 911–609 BC; Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar II 605–562 BC; fell to Persia 539 BC
800 BC – AD 500
Philosophers, prophets and great empires from Rome to Han China.
Axial Agec. 800–200 BC Ancient Greecec. 800–146 BC (classical peak 480–323 BC) Hebrew prophetsprophets c. 750–500 BC; texts largely compiled c. 600–400 BC Confucius551–479 BC Persian Empire550–330 BC (founded by Cyrus the Great) Roman Republic509–27 BC (traditional dates) Athenian democracy508/507–322 BC Daoismc. 6th–4th century BC; Laozi may be legendary The Buddhac. 5th century BC (traditionally 563–483 BC) Greek philosophySocrates 470–399 BC; Plato c. 428–348; Aristotle 384–322 Alexander356–323 BC; king from 336 BC Maurya Empirec. 322–185 BC Ashokareigned c. 268–232 BC Qin Shi Huangunified China 221 BC; ruled as emperor 221–210 BC Great Wallearly walls from the 600s BC; joined under Qin; most surviving wall built by the Ming Han China206 BC – AD 220 Paperc. 2nd century BC; improved by Cai Lun, AD 105 Silk Roadfrom c. 130 BC (Zhang Qian's missions) to c. 1450 Julius Caesar100–44 BC; dictator 49–44 BC Roman Empire27 BC – AD 476 in the West; the East lasted to 1453 Jesusc. 4 BC – c. AD 30/33 Christianityfrom c. AD 30; Rome's state religion from 380 Aksumc. AD 100–940; Christian from c. 330 Classic Mayac. AD 250–900 Constantinereigned 306–337; converted 312; Edict of Milan 313 Gupta Empirec. AD 320–550; place-value decimal numerals took shape in this era Byzantium330 (Constantinople founded) – 1453 Fall of RomeAD 476 (last western emperor deposed); decline from c. 376
500 – 1450
Faiths spread, Mongols ride, plague strikes, trade links the world.
Islamfrom 610 (first revelation); Hijra to Medina 622 Muhammadc. 570–632; preaching from 610 Tang China618–907 Caliphates632 onward: Rashidun, Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1258) Sunni–Shia splitsuccession dispute from 632; Karbala 680 Ghana Empirerecorded from the 700s; declined after c. 1076–1240 Islamic Golden Agec. 750–1258 (Baghdad founded 762) Vikings793–1066 (Vikings reached North America c. 1021) Charlemagnec. 747–814; crowned emperor 800 Angkor (Khmer Empire)c. 802–1431; Angkor Wat built c. 1113–1150 Gunpowderformula c. 850 (Tang); weapons by c. 1000 (Song) Song China960–1279 Polynesian voyagesHawaii and Rapa Nui c. 1000–1200; New Zealand c. 1280 Movable typeclay type c. 1040 (Bi Sheng); Korean metal type by 1234; Jikji 1377 Crusades1096–1291 Great Zimbabwec. 1100–1450 Kamakura shogunate1185–1333; samurai-led shogunates ruled Japan until 1868 Mongol Empire1206 (Genghis Khan proclaimed) – 1368 Magna CartaJune 15, 1215 Mali Empirec. 1235–1600s Ottoman Empirec. 1299–1922 Mansa Musareigned c. 1312–1337; pilgrimage to Mecca 1324–25 Black Death1346–1353 Ming China1368–1644 Joseon Korea1392–1897 Renaissancec. 1400–1600, beginning in Italy (roots in the 1300s) Zheng Hevoyages 1405–1433 Aztec Empire1428–1521 (Tenochtitlan founded c. 1325) Inca Empire1438–1533 Hangulcreated 1443; published 1446
1450 – 1750
Printing, voyages, empires across oceans and the scientific revolution.
Printing pressc. 1450, Mainz; Gutenberg Bible c. 1455 Fall of ConstantinopleMay 29, 1453 Columbus, 1492October 12, 1492 Columbian Exchangefrom 1492 Da Gama reaches India1497–1499 (reached India May 1498) Atlantic slave tradec. 1501–1867; about 12.5 million people forced aboard ships Reformationfrom 1517 Martin Luther1483–1546; 95 Theses October 31, 1517 Epidemics in Americasfrom 1518 (smallpox); populations fell by perhaps 50–90% Spanish conquestAztecs 1519–1521; Inca 1532–1572 Around the world1519–1522 Mughal Empire1526–1857 Scientific Revolution1543 (Copernicus) – c. 1700 Tsarist Russiatsars from 1547 (Ivan IV); empire 1721–1917; Peter the Great reigned 1682–1725 Colonial AmericaSt. Augustine 1565 (Spanish); Jamestown 1607; Quebec 1608; Plymouth 1620 East India CompaniesEnglish company 1600; Dutch company 1602 Tokugawa Japan1603–1868 Galileo1564–1642; telescope 1609; trial 1633 Thirty Years' War1618–1648 Qing China1644–1912 Enlightenmentc. 1685–1815 Newton's Principia1687 Locke's natural rights1689 Steam engineNewcomen 1712; Watt's improved engine 1769
1750 – 1914
Revolutions in politics and industry remake the world.
Industrial Revolutionc. 1760–1840 in Britain, then worldwide American Revolution1775–1783 Wealth of Nations1776 Declaration, 1776July 4, 1776 US Constitutionwritten 1787; in force 1789; Bill of Rights 1791 French Revolution1789–1799 Haitian Revolution1791–1804 Vaccines & germ theoryJenner's smallpox vaccine 1796; Pasteur and Koch, 1860s–1880s Napoleon1769–1821; ruled France 1799–1815 AbolitionBritish slave-trade ban 1807; British Empire 1834; US 1865; Brazil 1888 Latin America independent1808–1826 Simón Bolívar1783–1830; campaigns 1810–1825 Opium Wars1839–1842 and 1856–1860 Communist Manifesto1848 (Marx and Engels); Das Kapital 1867 Nationalismfrom the 1790s; revolutions across Europe in 1848; Italy unified 1861 Women's suffrageSeneca Falls 1848; first national vote New Zealand 1893; US 1920; UK equal 1928 Taiping Rebellion1850–1864; an estimated 20–30 million died British Rajcompany rule from 1757; Crown rule 1858–1947 Darwin's evolutionNovember 24, 1859 US Civil War1861–1865 Meiji Restoration1868 New Imperialismc. 1870–1914 Steel, oil & electricityc. 1870–1914 Germany unifiedproclaimed January 18, 1871, after wars of 1864–1871 Scramble for Africa1881–1914 (Berlin Conference 1884–85) Japan rules Korea1910–1945 (protectorate from 1905)
1914 – 1991
Two world wars, the Cold War and the end of empires.
World War IJuly 28, 1914 – November 11, 1918 Russian RevolutionFebruary and October 1917 1918 flu1918–1920 Treaty of VersaillesJune 28, 1919 Gandhi1869–1948; mass campaigns from 1920; Salt March 1930 Fascism & NazismMussolini in power 1922; Hitler 1933–1945 Soviet Union1922–1991 (Stalin ruled c. 1924–1953) Great DepressionOctober 1929 crash – late 1930s World War IISeptember 1, 1939 – September 2, 1945 Holocaustpersecution from 1933; mass murder 1941–1945; six million Jews killed Pearl HarborDecember 7, 1941 StalingradAugust 1942 – February 1943 D-DayJune 6, 1944 Decolonizationc. 1945–1975 Hiroshima & NagasakiAugust 6 and 9, 1945 United Nationsfounded October 24, 1945 Cold Warc. 1947–1991 India independentAugust 14–15, 1947 Apartheid1948–1994; Mandela freed 1990, elected president 1994 Israel founded, 1948May 14, 1948; war 1948–49 (for Palestinians, the Nakba, 'catastrophe') Chinese Revolutioncivil war 1927–1949; People's Republic proclaimed by Mao Zedong October 1, 1949 Korean WarJune 25, 1950 – July 27, 1953 (armistice, no peace treaty) Civil rights movement1954–1968 Vietnam War1955–1975 Space raceSputnik 1957 – Apollo–Soyuz 1975 African independenceGhana 1957; 17 nations in 1960 Great Leap & Cultural Rev.Great Leap 1958–1962 (famine deaths estimated at 15–45 million); Cultural Revolution 1966–1976 Cuban Missile CrisisOctober 1962 Moon landingJuly 20, 1969 China's reformsfrom December 1978; joined the WTO 2001 Iranian Revolution1978–1979 HIV/AIDSidentified 1981; about 42 million deaths since (UNAIDS estimate) Berlin Wall fallsNovember 9, 1989
1991 – today
The internet, globalization, pandemics and AI.
Globalizationfrom 1991, after the Cold War (roots in earlier trade eras) World Wide Webweb public 1991 (internet roots: ARPANET 1969) USSR collapsesDecember 26, 1991 Climate changeUN climate treaty 1992; Kyoto Protocol 1997; Paris Agreement December 12, 2015 European UnionMaastricht Treaty 1993 (roots 1951 and 1957); euro 1999 Rwandan genocideApril–July 1994 9/11 attacksSeptember 11, 2001 Afghanistan & Iraq warsAfghanistan 2001–2021; Iraq 2003–2011 SmartphonesiPhone 2007 (Facebook 2004) 2008 crash2007–2009 (Lehman Brothers failed September 15, 2008) Arab SpringDecember 2010 – 2012; Syrian civil war from 2011 AI boomdeep learning from 2012; ChatGPT 2022 COVID-19first cases late 2019; pandemic declared March 11, 2020 War in Ukrainefrom February 24, 2022 (after Russia annexed Crimea in 2014)