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Charlemagne
c. 747–814; crowned emperor 800· Person· Europe
Well documentedSolid records, physical evidence or scientific consensus.
King of the Franks who united much of western Europe and was crowned Roman emperor by the pope in 800.
See it on the History map →What happened
Over about 30 years of campaigns he conquered the Lombards of Italy and the Saxons of Germany, forcing the Saxons to convert. Ruling from Aachen, he sent inspectors (missi dominici) to check on local counts. He gathered scholars like Alcuin of York, whose copyists preserved many Roman texts in a clear new script that became the model for our lowercase letters. His grandsons split the empire in 843, roughly into early France and Germany.
Why it matters
He bound the papacy and western kings together, revived learning, and created the core of what became France, Germany and the idea of 'Europe'.
Legacy and how we know
Einhard's biography, written by a courtier; royal annals and decrees (capitularies); his palace chapel, still standing at Aachen; thousands of manuscripts copied in his schools.
Still debated
Whether he wanted the imperial crown, or was surprised by the pope, as Einhard claims, is debated.
Connections (4)
▸Fall of the Western Roman Empire left a gap later filled by CharlemagneMostly agreed
The connection
After the western empire ended in 476, Germanic kingdoms ruled its lands. The Franks, who adopted Catholic Christianity under King Clovis around 500, became the strongest. Charlemagne extended Frankish rule over much of the old western empire and in 800 revived the title of emperor in the West, vacant for over 300 years.
When and how
Western Europe: Clovis's Frankish kingdom from about 481; Charlemagne ruled 768–814 and was crowned in Rome on Christmas Day 800.
How sure are we?
Gregory of Tours' History of the Franks; Frankish royal annals; Einhard's Life of Charlemagne; papal letters.
Debates and open questions
Whether Rome 'fell' or slowly transformed into these kingdoms is a major debate, which shapes how new Charlemagne's empire really was.
▸Charlemagne claimed to revive Roman EmpireWell documented
The connection
On Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne 'Emperor of the Romans' in St Peter's in Rome. The title claimed continuity with ancient Rome, though an emperor still ruled in Constantinople, which saw the crowning as an affront. The idea lived on in the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806.
When and how
Rome, December 25, 800; Byzantium accepted him as an emperor, though not 'of the Romans', in 812.
How we know
Frankish royal annals, Einhard's biography and the papal Liber Pontificalis describe the coronation; his seal reads 'Renovatio Romani Imperii', renewal of the Roman Empire.
Debates and open questions
Who gained more from the coronation, pope or king, and what the title meant to each of them, is still debated.
▸Charlemagne faced the first raids of the Viking AgeMostly agreed
The connection
The first famous Viking raid, on Lindisfarne in England in 793, shocked Charlemagne's court, where Alcuin of York wrote grieving letters. Danish raids soon hit the Frankish coast, and Charlemagne organized coastal defenses and fleets around 800–810. After his death, his weaker, divided empire suffered far worse attacks, including the sack of Paris in 845.
When and how
The North Sea coasts of Frisia and northern France, about 799–810; the Danish king Godfred's fleet raided Frisia in 810.
How sure are we?
The Royal Frankish Annals; Alcuin's letters after Lindisfarne; a later, probably legendary, story of Charlemagne weeping at the sight of Viking ships.
Debates and open questions
Some historians argue Charlemagne's brutal conquest of the pagan Saxons, Denmark's neighbors, helped provoke the raids; others stress the lure of trade wealth.
▸Charlemagne is honored as a father of the European UnionWell documented
The connection
Charlemagne's empire, around AD 800, joined most of what became France, Germany, the Low Countries and northern Italy, roughly the six nations that founded the 1957 common market. Advocates of European unity adopted him as their symbol. Since 1950 Aachen, his old capital, has awarded the Charlemagne Prize for service to European unity.
When and how
Aachen, Germany, from 1950; winners include Jean Monnet, Winston Churchill and Angela Merkel, and in 2002 the euro itself.
How we know
The prize, the European Commission's Charlemagne building in Brussels and leaders' speeches show the symbolism is real; it is a cultural link, not a cause.
Debates and open questions
French and German nationalists, who fought each other, also claimed Charlemagne. Some historians see his 'father of Europe' title as modern myth-making.