Ottoman Empire
c. 1299–1922· Empire, kingdom or state· Middle East & Africa
Well documentedSolid records, physical evidence or scientific consensus.
A Turkish Muslim dynasty that grew from a small frontier state in Anatolia into an empire on three continents lasting over 600 years.
See it on the History map →What happened
Founded by Osman around 1299, it expanded into the Balkans and in 1453 took Constantinople, which became its capital, Istanbul. In 1516–17 it conquered Egypt and Syria, gaining Mecca and Medina. Under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–66) it ruled from Hungary to Iraq and besieged Vienna. Elite janissary soldiers were taken as boys from Christian families and converted. Religious communities ran many of their own affairs. It weakened from the 1700s and collapsed after World War I.
Why it matters
It ruled the Middle East, North Africa and southeastern Europe for centuries; many of today's borders and conflicts there date from its breakup after 1918.
How we know
Vast Ottoman state archives in Istanbul, including tax registers; European diplomats' reports; surviving mosques, bridges and fortresses; chronicles in Turkish, Arabic and European languages.
Still debated
How Osman's small band grew so fast, and whether the empire 'declined' after 1600 or adapted, are debated by historians.
Inside this (1)
Connections (3)
▸Ottoman Empire triumphed in the Fall of ConstantinopleWell documented
The connection
The Ottomans, a Turkish dynasty from Anatolia, crossed into Europe in the 1350s and surrounded Constantinople, ruling from Edirne. Mehmed II built the Rumeli Hisarı fortress in 1452 to control the Bosphorus, then besieged the city. Victory made Constantinople the Ottoman capital, and Mehmed took the title 'Caesar of Rome'.
When and how
Constantinople, 1452–1453; Sultan Mehmed II, aged 21, with an army of perhaps 50,000–80,000 men; estimates vary.
How we know
Ottoman chronicles, Mehmed's fortress Rumeli Hisarı still standing on the Bosphorus, and his repopulation and rebuilding of the city.
Debates and open questions
Why earlier Ottoman sieges (1394–1402, 1422) failed while Mehmed's succeeded is discussed, as is how seriously he saw himself as Rome's heir.
▸Ottoman Empire became the leading power of IslamMostly agreed
The connection
The Ottomans, a Turkish dynasty from Anatolia, took Constantinople in 1453, then Syria, Egypt and the holy cities of Mecca and Medina in 1516–17. Sultans then claimed the title of caliph, leader of Sunni Muslims, and protected the pilgrimage. For four centuries it was the leading Sunni power, until defeat in World War I; Turkey abolished the caliphate in 1924.
When and how
Anatolia, the Balkans and the Middle East, 1453–1924; sultans Mehmed II, Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent.
How sure are we?
Ottoman archives and chronicles, coins and inscriptions bearing caliphal titles, and European and Arab accounts.
Debates and open questions
How seriously the caliph title was used before the 1700s is debated; Shia Safavid Persia and Mughal India were rival Muslim powers.
▸Ottoman Empire collapsed after defeat in World War IWell documented
The connection
The Ottomans joined Germany in late 1914. They beat the Allies at Gallipoli but lost Iraq, Palestine and Syria to British and Arab forces. The wartime government deported and massacred Armenians; most historians call it genocide, which Turkey disputes. After the war the Allies divided the Arab lands, and Mustafa Kemal's nationalists founded Turkey in 1923.
When and how
Fronts at Gallipoli (1915–16), the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and Palestine; the sultanate was abolished in 1922 and the Republic of Turkey proclaimed on October 29, 1923.
How we know
Ottoman, British and German archives, the secret Sykes-Picot agreement (1916), the treaties of Sèvres (1920) and Lausanne (1923), and many eyewitness accounts.
Debates and open questions
Historians debate whether the empire was already doomed before 1914, and whether joining Germany was a planned choice or a gamble by a few leaders such as Enver Pasha.