History › Early modern
Tsarist Russia and the Russian Empire
tsars from 1547 (Ivan IV); empire 1721–1917; Peter the Great reigned 1682–1725· Empire, kingdom or state· Europe
Well documentedSolid records, physical evidence or scientific consensus.
Moscow's rulers took the title tsar in 1547 and built the largest land empire of modern times, ruled by Romanov emperors until 1917.
See it on the History map →What happened
Muscovy threw off Mongol overlordship in 1480. Ivan IV, 'the Terrible', was crowned tsar in 1547 and conquered the Volga khanates; Cossacks and fur traders pushed across Siberia to the Pacific by 1639. The Romanov dynasty took power in 1613. Peter the Great rebuilt the army and state on Western lines, founded St. Petersburg in 1703, defeated Sweden and took the title emperor in 1721. Catherine the Great expanded to the Black Sea and into Poland.
Why it matters
At its height it covered about a sixth of Earth's land. Its autocracy, serfdom (abolished only in 1861) and expansion shaped the Soviet Union that replaced it, and today's Russia and its neighbors.
How we know
State archives, law codes, travelers' accounts, Peter's decrees and letters, and censuses such as that of 1897, which counted about 125 million subjects.
Still debated
Historians debate whether Russia is best seen as European or as a distinct Eurasian civilization, and how much the Mongol period shaped its autocracy.
Connections (3)
▸Tsarist Russia and the Russian Empire rose from princedoms long ruled by the Mongol Empire (Genghis Khan)Well documented
The connection
Mongol armies conquered the Rus' princedoms, including Kyiv, in 1237–1240. Through the Golden Horde, a Mongol successor state, they took tribute for about 240 years. Moscow's princes rose by collecting that tribute for the khans; Ivan III stopped paying in 1480. Russia later conquered the Horde's successor khanates and kept some Mongol practices in taxation, postal relays and diplomacy.
When and how
Today's Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, 1237–1480; Batu Khan, the Golden Horde's capital at Sarai, and Moscow's princes from Ivan I to Ivan III.
How we know
Russian chronicles, Mongol and Persian sources, tribute records, and Russian words borrowed from Turkic-Mongol languages, such as dengi, 'money'.
Debates and open questions
Historians debate the 'Tatar yoke': whether Mongol rule made Russia autocratic and isolated, or whether its influence has been exaggerated.
▸Tsarist Russia and the Russian Empire defeated the 1812 invasion of Napoleon BonaparteWell documented
The connection
Napoleon invaded Russia in June 1812 with roughly 600,000 men to force Tsar Alexander I back into his trade blockade of Britain. The Russians retreated, fought at Borodino and abandoned Moscow, which burned. With no surrender and winter coming, the French retreated; cold, hunger, disease and Cossack attacks destroyed the army. Perhaps 100,000 or fewer escaped; estimates vary.
When and how
Russia, June–December 1812; Napoleon's Grande Armée, Tsar Alexander I and General Mikhail Kutuzov; Battle of Borodino, September 7.
How we know
Army records, letters and memoirs from both sides, and Charles Minard's famous 1869 chart showing the army shrinking on its march.
Debates and open questions
Who set Moscow on fire, Russian patriots under Governor Rostopchin or chance, is debated; so are the army's real size and losses.
▸Russian Revolution overthrew Tsarist Russia and the Russian EmpireWell documented
The connection
World War I brought huge losses, food shortages and inflation. In February 1917 strikes and army mutinies in Petrograd forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule. A Provisional Government kept fighting the war; in October Lenin's Bolsheviks seized power. They killed the former tsar and his family in July 1918.
When and how
Petrograd (St. Petersburg), February and October 1917; Nicholas II, Alexander Kerensky, Lenin and Trotsky. The family was killed at Yekaterinburg.
How we know
Nicholas's abdication manifesto, government records, newspapers and eyewitness memoirs; DNA tests in the 1990s and 2008 identified the family's remains.
Debates and open questions
Historians debate whether the empire could have reformed itself without World War I, and whether October was a popular revolution or a coup.