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Latin American wars of independence
1808–1826· War· Americas & Oceania
Well documentedSolid records, physical evidence or scientific consensus.
The wars in which Spain's and Portugal's American colonies, from Mexico to Argentina, became independent nations.
See it on the History map →What happened
When Napoleon seized Spain in 1808, colonial elites set up their own governing councils, which soon sought full independence. Simón Bolívar fought in northern South America; José de San Martín led armies from Argentina across the Andes into Chile and Peru. In Mexico, a revolt begun by the priest Miguel Hidalgo in 1810 ended in independence in 1821. Brazil broke from Portugal with relatively little fighting in 1822 under a Portuguese prince. Spain's last major army in South America lost at Ayacucho in 1824.
Why it matters
It created most of today's Latin American nations, though Cuba and Puerto Rico stayed Spanish until 1898. Power mostly stayed with creole elites (American-born whites), and decades of strongmen and civil wars followed.
How we know
Government and military records in Spanish archives in Seville and Madrid, leaders' letters such as Bolívar's Jamaica Letter (1815), the declarations of independence, and travelers' accounts.
Still debated
Historians debate whether these were true revolutions or mostly elite transfers of power that left Indigenous, Black and mixed-race majorities little better off.
Inside this (1)
Connections (2)
▸Napoleon Bonaparte triggered, by invading Spain, the Latin American wars of independenceWell documented
The connection
In 1808 Napoleon forced Spain's king to give up the throne and installed his brother Joseph. With no legitimate king, colonial elites formed local councils, called juntas, to rule in the captive king's name, and these soon became independence movements. Portugal's royal family fled to Brazil, paving the way for its later separation.
When and how
Bayonne, France, May 1808, where Spain's Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were made to renounce the crown; juntas formed in Caracas, Buenos Aires and elsewhere in 1809 to 1810.
How we know
Junta proclamations, which cite the king's captivity, Spanish and colonial records, and letters of leaders like Bolívar.
Debates and open questions
Would independence have come anyway? Many historians think creole frustration with Spain made it likely, and that Napoleon mainly decided the timing.
▸Simón Bolívar led much of the fighting in the Latin American wars of independenceWell documented
The connection
Bolívar was the leading commander in northern and Andean South America, winning key battles at Boyacá (1819) and Carabobo (1821), while his general Antonio José de Sucre won Ayacucho (1824). His campaigns freed today's Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru and Bolivia. José de San Martín led the southern campaigns, and Mexico won independence separately.
When and how
From Venezuela to Bolivia, 1810 to 1825; Bolívar met San Martín once, at Guayaquil in 1822, after which San Martín withdrew.
How we know
Bolívar's letters, battle records, and the declarations and constitutions of the new republics, several of which named him president.
Debates and open questions
What Bolívar and San Martín said privately at Guayaquil is unknown, and why San Martín stepped aside remains a puzzle.