History › Classical age › Roman Republic
Julius Caesar
100–44 BC; dictator 49–44 BC· Person· Europe
Well documentedSolid records, physical evidence or scientific consensus.
Roman general and politician whose conquest of Gaul and civil-war victory made him dictator and fatally weakened the Republic.
See it on the History map →What happened
An ambitious aristocrat, Caesar conquered Gaul (roughly France and Belgium) in 58–50 BC; ancient sources claim a million dead, a figure many doubt. Ordered by the Senate to give up his army, he crossed the Rubicon into Italy in 49 BC, starting a civil war, and defeated Pompey. As dictator he reformed the calendar into the Julian calendar, ancestor of ours. Named dictator for life in 44 BC, he was stabbed to death by senators on the Ides of March.
Why it matters
He showed that an army loyal to its general could override the Republic. His heir Octavian became the first emperor; 'Kaiser' and 'tsar' come from his name.
Legacy and how we know
His own commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars, Cicero's letters, later biographies by Plutarch and Suetonius, and coins bearing his portrait.
Still debated
Whether he meant to become king, or only the Republic's dominant man, is debated. The Gallic casualty figures are probably exaggerated.
Connections (2)
▸Julius Caesar helped bring down Roman RepublicWell documented
The connection
Caesar used his Gallic army's loyalty and plunder to defy the Senate. Crossing the Rubicon in 49 BC, he started a civil war, beat Pompey and became dictator, an emergency office he held repeatedly and finally for life. This broke the Republic's core rule that no one should hold supreme power for long, and senators killed him to restore it.
When and how
Rome and the wider Mediterranean, 49–44 BC; Caesar, Pompey, Brutus and Cassius.
How we know
Cicero's letters, Caesar's own commentaries, and the biographies by Suetonius and Plutarch describe events in detail.
Debates and open questions
Whether the Republic was already doomed by earlier civil wars, making Caesar a symptom rather than a cause, is debated.
▸Julius Caesar paved the way for Roman EmpireWell documented
The connection
Caesar's will adopted his 18-year-old grandnephew Octavian as son and heir. Using Caesar's name, money and veterans, Octavian beat the assassins at Philippi (42 BC) and then Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31 BC). As Augustus he became the first emperor, avoiding Caesar's mistake of flaunting power. Later rulers took 'Caesar' as a title.
When and how
Rome, Philippi and Actium, 44–27 BC; Octavian, Mark Antony, Cleopatra, Brutus and Cassius.
How we know
Ancient historians such as Suetonius and Cassius Dio, Augustus' Res Gestae, and coins honoring the 'Divine Julius'.
Debates and open questions
How far Caesar intended a monarchy, and whether he meant Octavian as a political successor, are unknown.