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The Torah (Pentateuch, five books of Moses)
traditionally by Moses; final form c. 5th century BC (most scholars)· Book of the Bible· Books & writings
Debated by scholarsHistorians and scholars disagree.
The first five books of the Bible, Genesis to Deuteronomy, holding creation, the patriarchs, the Exodus and the Law given at Sinai.
See it on the Bible & Christianity map →What it is
Torah means 'teaching' or 'instruction'. Its five books are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy; the Greek name Pentateuch means 'five scrolls'. They run from creation to Moses' death within sight of the Promised Land (Deuteronomy 34). Jewish tradition counts 613 commandments in them. Synagogues read a hand-written scroll aloud in weekly portions, finishing it every year at the festival of Simchat Torah. Tradition names Moses as author.
Why it matters
It is the foundation of Judaism and of biblical law. Christians read it as the Old Testament's opening, and Jesus quoted it often, especially Deuteronomy.
Sources and history
Most scholars see several sources (often labeled J, E, D and P) combined over centuries and finished around the 5th century BC. Silver amulets from Ketef Hinnom (c. 600 BC) quote Numbers 6:24–26, the oldest known biblical text.
Questions and debates
How the sources fit together is now hotly debated, and the classic 'Documentary Hypothesis' has rivals. Traditional Jews and many Christians still hold Moses wrote it.
Connections (5)
▸Ten Commandments and the Law at Mount Sinai form the heart of The Torah (Pentateuch, five books of Moses)Mostly agreed by scholars
The connection
The Ten Commandments appear twice in the Torah, in Exodus 20:1–17 and Deuteronomy 5:6–21, at the moment God makes his covenant with Israel at Sinai. The hundreds of laws that follow in Exodus, Leviticus and Deuteronomy are often read as applying them to daily life.
When and where
Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5, set at Mount Sinai (called Horeb in Deuteronomy) after the Exodus.
How do we know?
The two versions differ slightly: Exodus grounds the Sabbath in creation, Deuteronomy in freedom from slavery, suggesting the text was adapted in different settings.
Questions and debates
Jews, Catholics and Lutherans, and other Protestants number them differently, splitting or combining the commands on idols and coveting. When they were first written is debated.
▸Moses, lawgiver and prophet is traditionally credited with writing The Torah (Pentateuch, five books of Moses)Debated by scholars
The connection
Jewish and Christian tradition names Moses as author of all five Torah books, often called 'the five books of Moses'. The text shows Moses writing down laws (Exodus 24:4; Deuteronomy 31:9), and Jesus speaks of 'the law of Moses' (Luke 24:44).
When and where
Set in the wilderness after the Exodus; belief in Moses' authorship is firm by the time of Josephus and the Talmud (1st to 5th centuries AD).
How do we know?
Uncertain. Deuteronomy 34 reports Moses' own death and burial; the Talmud assigns those verses to Joshua. Most modern scholars see several later authors.
Questions and debates
Whether any material goes back to Moses, and whether he was a historical person, remain open; traditional Jews and many Christians affirm his authorship.
▸Ezra and Nehemiah rebuild Jerusalem taught the people The Torah (Pentateuch, five books of Moses)Mostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Nehemiah 8 tells how Ezra stood on a wooden platform in Jerusalem and read 'the book of the law of Moses' from early morning until midday, while Levites explained its meaning. The people wept, then kept the Festival of Booths and signed a covenant to obey the Law (Nehemiah 9–10).
When and where
The square before Jerusalem's Water Gate, in the seventh month (autumn), around 445 BC or later.
How do we know?
Known only from Ezra-Nehemiah. Many scholars see this as the moment the Torah became Judaism's authoritative public text, though which 'book' Ezra read is unclear.
Questions and debates
Whether Ezra's law book was the full five-book Torah or an earlier part, such as Deuteronomy or the priestly laws, is debated.
▸The Torah (Pentateuch, five books of Moses) forms the first part of The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)Historical record
The connection
The Torah's five books open the Hebrew Bible and carry its highest authority in Judaism; the Prophets and Writings are often read as commentary on it. A hand-written Torah scroll sits in every synagogue's ark and is read through each year, with passages from the Prophets added alongside.
When and where
Probably accepted as scripture first, by about 400 BC; the Samaritans, who gradually split from the Jews, accept only the Torah.
Historical evidence
The Samaritan Pentateuch, a separate version of just these five books, suggests the Torah was accepted as shared scripture before the other sections.
Questions and debates
When exactly the Torah was finalized, and whether Persian authorities encouraged it as official local law, are debated.
▸Modern biblical criticism proposed multiple sources for The Torah (Pentateuch, five books of Moses)Mostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Critics noticed that the Torah tells some stories twice (two creation accounts, Genesis 1 and 2), uses different names for God, and shifts in style. Wellhausen's Documentary Hypothesis (1878) proposed four sources, J, E, D and P, written between about the 10th and 5th centuries BC and combined after the Babylonian exile.
When and where
France and Germany: Jean Astruc on Genesis (1753), W. M. L. de Wette on Deuteronomy (1805), and Julius Wellhausen, building on Karl Graf (1878).
How do we know?
The evidence is internal: doublets, vocabulary and theology. Deuteronomy's link to the 'book of the law' found under King Josiah (2 Kings 22, about 622 BC) is widely accepted.
Questions and debates
Many scholars now doubt a separate E source and prefer layered models; traditional Jews and Christians affirm Mosaic authorship. Multiple authorship is broadly agreed; the details are not.