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The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)
written c. 1000–165 BC; canon largely settled by c. AD 100–200· Book of the Bible· Books & writings
Mostly agreed by scholarsMost historians agree; some details uncertain.
The scriptures of Judaism, 24 books in three parts (Law, Prophets, Writings), which Christians call the Old Testament.
See it on the Bible & Christianity map →What it is
Jews call it the Tanakh, from the first letters of Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). It was written mostly in Hebrew, with some Aramaic in Daniel and Ezra, over roughly 1000 to 165 BC. Protestant Bibles contain the same text as 39 books by splitting Samuel, Kings and others. Catholic Bibles add seven deuterocanonical books (46 in all), and Orthodox Bibles a few more. Christian Bibles end with the prophets, an order read as pointing toward Christ.
Why it matters
It is the shared foundation of Judaism and Christianity, and through them shaped Islam, Western law and literature, and the idea of one God acting in history.
Sources and history
The Dead Sea Scrolls (c. 250 BC to AD 68) hold parts of every book except Esther. The standard Hebrew text survives complete in the Leningrad Codex (AD 1008); the older Aleppo Codex (c. 930) is damaged.
Questions and debates
When and how the canon was closed is debated. The old idea that a rabbinic 'Council of Jamnia' settled it around AD 90 is now largely rejected.
Inside this (3)
Connections (8)
▸Deborah, prophet and judge sings one of the oldest poems in The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)Mostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Judges 4 tells Deborah's victory over the Canaanite general Sisera in prose. Judges 5 retells it as the 'Song of Deborah', a victory hymn she sings with Barak. Its archaic Hebrew leads many scholars to count it among the oldest passages in the Hebrew Bible, preserved inside a later book.
When and where
Judges 5, set near Mount Tabor and the Kishon River in northern Israel; the poem may date to about 1150–1000 BC.
How do we know?
The case rests on language: the poem's grammar and vocabulary are older than the surrounding prose. It is a linguists' judgment, not an archaeological find.
Questions and debates
Its date is debated; some scholars now place it in the time of the kings or later, written in a deliberately old-fashioned style.
▸Wisdom books: Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes belong to the Writings of The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)Mostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Job, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes sit in the Writings (Ketuvim), the third part of the Hebrew Bible, alongside Psalms, Song of Songs and others. Unlike the Law and the Prophets, they rarely mention Israel's history or covenant, asking instead how to live wisely and why good people suffer.
When and where
Collected over centuries; the Writings were the last section of the Hebrew Bible to be settled, likely by the 2nd century AD.
How do we know?
The three-part grouping is attested in the prologue to Sirach (c. 130 BC), Luke 24:44 ('the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms') and the Talmud.
Questions and debates
Christian Bibles group them among the 'poetical books' in the middle; Catholic and Orthodox Bibles add Wisdom of Solomon and Sirach. When each Writing was accepted is debated.
▸The Hebrew prophets fill the second part of The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)Historical record
The connection
The Prophets (Nevi'im) form the second part of the Hebrew Bible. The 'Former Prophets' (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) tell Israel's history; the 'Latter Prophets' preserve the words of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Twelve minor prophets, mostly warnings of judgment and promises of restoration.
When and where
The prophets were active c. 870–430 BC; most scholars think their books were collected and edited by about 200 BC.
Historical evidence
Sirach (c. 190 BC) already names 'the Twelve Prophets' as a group (Sirach 49:10), and the Dead Sea Scrolls hold copies of every prophetic book.
Questions and debates
How much of each book comes from the prophet himself versus disciples and later editors is debated, especially for Isaiah and Zechariah.
▸The Torah (Pentateuch, five books of Moses) forms the first part of The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)Historical record
The connection
The Torah's five books open the Hebrew Bible and carry its highest authority in Judaism; the Prophets and Writings are often read as commentary on it. A hand-written Torah scroll sits in every synagogue's ark and is read through each year, with passages from the Prophets added alongside.
When and where
Probably accepted as scripture first, by about 400 BC; the Samaritans, who gradually split from the Jews, accept only the Torah.
Historical evidence
The Samaritan Pentateuch, a separate version of just these five books, suggests the Torah was accepted as shared scripture before the other sections.
Questions and debates
When exactly the Torah was finalized, and whether Persian authorities encouraged it as official local law, are debated.
▸The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was translated into Greek as Septuagint: the Greek Old TestamentHistorical record
The connection
As Jews spread across the Greek-speaking world, many no longer read Hebrew. Jews in Alexandria translated the Torah into Greek around 280–250 BC, and the other books followed over about two centuries. The Septuagint made the Bible readable across the Mediterranean.
When and where
Alexandria, Egypt, under Ptolemy II (285–246 BC); later books were translated in Egypt and Judea until about 100 BC.
Historical evidence
Greek biblical papyri from the 2nd century BC and Greek scrolls at Qumran confirm the early translation; Philo and Josephus both discuss it.
Questions and debates
The story of 72 translators working 72 days is legendary. After Christians adopted the Septuagint, Jews turned to new Greek versions, such as Aquila's (c. AD 130).
▸Dead Sea Scrolls (Qumran) hold the oldest copies of The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)Historical record
The connection
Before 1947, the oldest complete Hebrew Bible manuscripts dated from about AD 900–1000. The scrolls added over 200 biblical manuscripts from about 250 BC to AD 68, covering every book except Esther. They showed the text had been copied faithfully for a thousand years, while also revealing variant versions.
When and where
Eleven caves near Qumran, found 1947–1956; the most-copied books are Psalms (about 36 copies), Deuteronomy (about 30) and Isaiah (about 21).
Historical evidence
Direct comparison: the Great Isaiah Scroll closely matches the medieval Masoretic Text, while some copies of Samuel and Jeremiah agree with the Septuagint instead.
Questions and debates
Whether the variants show several competing versions of scripture before one standard text won out, and when that happened, is debated.
▸The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) became the Old Testament in The biblical canon: the agreed list of booksHistorical record
The connection
Christians kept the Jewish scriptures as their 'Old Testament'. Most early churches read them in the Greek Septuagint, which included extra books such as Tobit, Judith, Wisdom and Maccabees. Marcion's call to drop them was rejected. Jerome preferred the shorter Hebrew list; Augustine and the African councils kept the longer one. That difference still separates Protestant and Catholic Bibles.
When and where
Melito of Sardis listed the 'books of the Old Covenant' around 170; councils at Hippo (393) and Carthage (397); Luther set the extra books apart in 1534; Trent confirmed them in 1546.
Historical evidence
Melito's list is preserved by Eusebius; early Christian Bibles such as Codex Sinaiticus and Vaticanus contain the extra books alongside the Hebrew ones.
Questions and debates
Whether a wider 'Alexandrian' Jewish canon lay behind the Septuagint, as scholars once thought, is now doubted; Christian lists of the extra books varied for centuries.
▸Babylonian exile spurred the collecting of The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)Mostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Cut off from the Temple, exiles preserved their identity in writing. Most scholars think priests and scribes in Babylon collected and edited older traditions, shaping the Torah, finishing the history from Joshua to Kings, and gathering the prophets' words. Ezra later read 'the book of the law' publicly in Jerusalem (Nehemiah 8).
When and where
Babylonia and Jerusalem, about 586–400 BC; Ezra's public reading around 444 BC by the traditional date.
How do we know?
An inference from the texts: Kings ends in exile, with Jehoiachin released in 562 BC. Silver amulets from Ketef Hinnom (c. 600 BC) show some scripture existed earlier.
Questions and debates
How much was written before, during or after the exile is a central unresolved debate; Jewish tradition credits Ezra with restoring the Torah.