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Septuagint: the Greek Old Testament
Torah translated c. 280–250 BC, Alexandria· Council, creed or writing· Books & writings
Historical recordConfirmed by archaeology, outside sources or contemporary records.
The Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures, begun with the Torah in Alexandria, Egypt, around 280–250 BC.
See it on the Bible & Christianity map →What it is
The Letter of Aristeas, a legendary account, tells how King Ptolemy II asked for 72 Jewish scholars, six from each tribe, to translate the Law for the Library of Alexandria, and they finished in 72 days. The name comes from the Latin for 'seventy', abbreviated LXX. Scholars think Alexandria's Greek-speaking Jews needed it for worship. The other books were translated over the next two centuries, and the collection includes books not in the Hebrew canon.
Why it matters
It was the Bible of the early church: most Old Testament quotations in the New Testament follow it. It remains the Old Testament of Eastern Orthodoxy.
Sources and history
Greek papyri from the 2nd century BC (such as Rylands 458, from Deuteronomy) and Greek scrolls at Qumran. The fullest early copies are the 4th-century Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus.
Questions and debates
Where it differs from the later Hebrew text (its Jeremiah is about one-eighth shorter), it sometimes preserves an older Hebrew version. Which reading is original is argued case by case.
Inside this (1)
Connections (5)
▸The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was translated into Greek as Septuagint: the Greek Old TestamentHistorical record
The connection
As Jews spread across the Greek-speaking world, many no longer read Hebrew. Jews in Alexandria translated the Torah into Greek around 280–250 BC, and the other books followed over about two centuries. The Septuagint made the Bible readable across the Mediterranean.
When and where
Alexandria, Egypt, under Ptolemy II (285–246 BC); later books were translated in Egypt and Judea until about 100 BC.
Historical evidence
Greek biblical papyri from the 2nd century BC and Greek scrolls at Qumran confirm the early translation; Philo and Josephus both discuss it.
Questions and debates
The story of 72 translators working 72 days is legendary. After Christians adopted the Septuagint, Jews turned to new Greek versions, such as Aquila's (c. AD 130).
▸Alexander the Great brings Greek rule spread the Greek language behind Septuagint: the Greek Old TestamentMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Alexander's conquests made Greek the shared language from Egypt to India. He founded Alexandria in 331 BC, and it grew to hold one of the largest Jewish communities outside Judea. Its Greek-speaking Jews needed scripture they could read, producing the Septuagint in the common 'Koine' Greek that later carried the New Testament.
When and where
Alexandria, founded 331 BC; translation began under Ptolemy II, son of Alexander's general Ptolemy, about 50 years after Alexander's death.
How do we know?
Well documented: Greek inscriptions, papyri and the writings of Philo of Alexandria show a large Greek-speaking Jewish population there.
Questions and debates
Whether the translation was mainly a Jewish community project or commissioned by the king for his library, as the Letter of Aristeas claims, is debated.
▸Septuagint: the Greek Old Testament was the Bible quoted by The New TestamentHistorical record
The connection
Most early Christians spoke Greek, so their Bible was the Septuagint, translated in Alexandria from about 280 BC. Most Old Testament quotations in the New Testament follow its wording. A famous case: Matthew 1:23 quotes its Isaiah 7:14, 'a virgin shall conceive', where the Hebrew says 'young woman'.
When and where
Throughout the New Testament, written about AD 50–120, especially Paul's letters, Matthew, Luke-Acts and Hebrews, for Greek-speaking churches around the eastern Mediterranean.
Historical evidence
Comparing the quotations with the Hebrew and Greek texts shows the dependence clearly; Hebrews relies on the Septuagint almost entirely.
Questions and debates
Some quotations match neither the standard Hebrew nor the Greek, suggesting other versions or quoting from memory. The Dead Sea Scrolls show some Septuagint readings reflect older Hebrew texts.
▸Septuagint: the Greek Old Testament remains the Old Testament of Eastern Orthodox ChurchHistorical record
The connection
The Greek Septuagint, translated by Jews in Alexandria before Christ, was the Old Testament of the Greek-speaking early church. The Orthodox never switched to the Hebrew text, as Jerome's Vulgate and Protestant Bibles did, so it remains their official Old Testament, extra books included.
When and where
Translated in Alexandria from about 280–250 BC; quoted by New Testament writers and Greek church fathers; reaffirmed by Orthodox synods such as Jerusalem in 1672.
Historical evidence
Documented in Orthodox liturgy and church law: the Greek churches read the Septuagint itself, and Slavic churches use Church Slavonic translations made from it.
Questions and debates
Orthodox churches differ slightly on which extra books count, such as 3 Maccabees or Psalm 151, and on their standing relative to the Hebrew books.
▸Septuagint: the Greek Old Testament included the extra books called Deuterocanonical books (the Apocrypha)Historical record
The connection
The Greek Bible, as Christians preserved it, included books not in the Hebrew canon: Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, Maccabees and additions to Esther and Daniel. Because the early church read the Old Testament in Greek, these books entered Christian Bibles; Catholic and Orthodox churches still accept them.
When and where
Greek-speaking Judaism, c. 200 BC to AD 50; collected in Christian codices of the 4th and 5th centuries, such as Codex Sinaiticus.
Historical evidence
The great codices Vaticanus, Sinaiticus and Alexandrinus include them, but their lists vary, showing the boundaries were still loose.
Questions and debates
Whether a pre-Christian Jewish 'Alexandrian canon' with these books ever existed, or Christians assembled the collection later, is debated.