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Eastern Orthodox Church
separate from Rome since 1054· Church or tradition· Church, doctrine & the world
Historical recordConfirmed by archaeology, outside sources or contemporary records.
The family of self-governing churches (Greek, Russian, Serbian, Romanian and others) that follow the Byzantine tradition and honor Constantinople's patriarch.
See it on the Bible & Christianity map →What it is
Orthodoxy sees itself as the undivided early church, continued without change. It is a family of about 15 self-governing ('autocephalous') churches; the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is 'first among equals', not a pope. It accepts seven ecumenical councils (325–787), recites the Nicene Creed without the 'filioque', and centers worship on the Divine Liturgy and icons. Its Old Testament is the Greek Septuagint. Parish priests may marry before ordination; bishops come from the monks.
Why it matters
With roughly 220 to 260 million members, mostly in Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East, it is the second-largest single Christian communion and shaped Russian, Greek and Balkan culture.
Sources and history
Its councils, liturgies and church fathers are thoroughly documented. Orthodox and Catholic theologians agree on most doctrine; the main disputes are papal authority and the filioque.
Questions and debates
Who may grant independence is contested: in 2018–2019 Constantinople recognized an independent Orthodox Church of Ukraine, and Moscow broke communion with Constantinople in protest.
Inside this (2)
Connections (5)
▸Septuagint: the Greek Old Testament remains the Old Testament of Eastern Orthodox ChurchHistorical record
The connection
The Greek Septuagint, translated by Jews in Alexandria before Christ, was the Old Testament of the Greek-speaking early church. The Orthodox never switched to the Hebrew text, as Jerome's Vulgate and Protestant Bibles did, so it remains their official Old Testament, extra books included.
When and where
Translated in Alexandria from about 280–250 BC; quoted by New Testament writers and Greek church fathers; reaffirmed by Orthodox synods such as Jerusalem in 1672.
Historical evidence
Documented in Orthodox liturgy and church law: the Greek churches read the Septuagint itself, and Slavic churches use Church Slavonic translations made from it.
Questions and debates
Orthodox churches differ slightly on which extra books count, such as 3 Maccabees or Psalm 151, and on their standing relative to the Hebrew books.
▸Great Schism: East and West split separated Rome from Eastern Orthodox ChurchHistorical record
The connection
The 1054 excommunications mark the point when the Greek-speaking churches led by Constantinople and the Latin church under Rome became separate communions. The Eastern side came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Western as the Roman Catholic Church.
When and where
Constantinople, July 1054; hardened by the 1204 sack; failed reunions at Lyon (1274) and Florence (1439).
Historical evidence
The outcome is clear, but historians stress it was gradual: in some places Eastern and Western Christians kept sharing communion long after 1054.
Questions and debates
Since 1965, when Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras lifted the excommunications, theologians debate what still divides them; full communion has not been restored.
▸Eastern Orthodox Church lost its Christian empire in Ottomans take ConstantinopleHistorical record
The connection
For over a thousand years Orthodox Christians had a Christian emperor in Constantinople as protector and patron. After 1453 Hagia Sophia became a mosque and the church lived under Muslim rule; the patriarch stayed in the city but answered to the sultan. Moscow began styling itself the 'Third Rome'.
When and where
Constantinople, May 29, 1453; Mehmed II installed Gennadios Scholarios as Patriarch in January 1454.
Historical evidence
Documented by Greek, Venetian and Ottoman sources. The Ecumenical Patriarchate still sits in Istanbul's Fener (Phanar) district.
Questions and debates
Historians debate how the Ottoman 'millet' system, self-rule for religious communities, worked in practice, and whether it protected or confined the church.
▸Baptism of Kievan Rus' under Prince Vladimir brought the East Slavs into Eastern Orthodox ChurchHistorical record
The connection
Kyiv's baptism began the conversion of the East Slavs, ancestors of today's Ukrainians, Russians and Belarusians, though it took centuries to reach the countryside. Their churches became the largest part of the Orthodox world; the Russian Orthodox Church alone claims roughly 100 million members or more.
When and where
Kyiv, 988; the church's head stayed in Kyiv until 1299, when the metropolitan moved north, settling in Moscow by 1325.
Historical evidence
Chronicles, church records and early foundations such as the Kyiv Caves Monastery (c. 1051) document the spread.
Questions and debates
Russia and Ukraine both claim the 988 baptism as their national origin, a dispute sharpened since Russia's 2014 annexation of Crimea and its 2022 full-scale invasion of Ukraine.
▸Communism and the persecution of churches fell heavily on the Russian branch of Eastern Orthodox ChurchHistorical record
The connection
The Russian Orthodox Church, the state church before 1917, was a prime Soviet target: property seized, Patriarch Tikhon arrested (1922), tens of thousands of clergy and believers shot in 1937–38, and most churches closed. Stalin allowed a limited revival in 1943 to rally wartime support; Khrushchev closed thousands more in 1959–64. Romanian, Bulgarian, Serbian and Georgian Orthodox also suffered.
When and where
Soviet Union, 1917–1991; Eastern Europe after 1945; the Butovo firing range near Moscow, where over 20,000 people were shot in 1937–38, including hundreds of clergy and believers.
Historical evidence
Soviet archives opened after 1991, Butovo execution lists, and the Russian church's canonization of over 1,000 'New Martyrs and Confessors' since 2000.
Questions and debates
Death tolls are estimates. Debate continues over Metropolitan Sergius's 1927 loyalty declaration and Soviet secret-police infiltration of the church hierarchy.