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The Quran
Revealed 610–632 (Muslim belief); written text standardized c. 650· Scripture or text· Judaism, Christianity & Islam
Mostly agreed by scholarsMost historians agree; some details uncertain.
Islam's scripture, which Muslims believe is God's own word, revealed in Arabic to Muhammad over about 23 years.
See it on the World Religions map →What it is
The Quran ('recitation') has 114 chapters (suras), arranged roughly from longest to shortest, not by date. Muslims believe the angel Gabriel delivered it to Muhammad from 610 to 632, and that followers memorized and wrote it down during his life. Tradition says Caliph Uthman issued a standard written text around 650. It addresses God's oneness, the prophets, judgment, worship and law. Because Muslims hold the Arabic itself is divine, translations are treated as interpretations.
Why it matters
It is the foundation of Islamic belief, law and prayer, the model of classical Arabic, and perhaps the world's most memorized book: millions know it entirely by heart.
Sources and history
Early manuscripts such as the Birmingham and Sana'a leaves, carbon-dated to the 600s, largely match today's text; the Sana'a palimpsest also preserves an older, slightly different erased layer.
Questions and debates
Scholars debate how and when the text was fixed, under Uthman as tradition holds or somewhat later, and what the Sana'a palimpsest's variant readings reveal.
Inside this (1)
Connections (5)
▸Moses is the most-mentioned prophet in The QuranHistorical record
The connection
Moses, Musa in Arabic, is named about 136 times in the Quran, more than any other person. The Quran retells his birth, God speaking to him from the burning bush, his confrontation with Pharaoh and the Exodus, presenting him as a model prophet whose struggle with a proud ruler parallels Muhammad's with Mecca's elite.
When and where
In suras revealed, by Muslim tradition, at Mecca and Medina between 610 and 632, especially suras 7, 20, 26 and 28.
Historical evidence
Counting the name Musa in the Arabic text gives about 136 mentions, against about 69 for Abraham and 25 for Jesus.
Questions and debates
Scholars study why some details differ from the Bible, such as Pharaoh's wife, not his daughter, adopting baby Moses; Muslims see the Quran's versions as direct revelation.
▸The Quran tells many stories also found in The Torah (Five Books of Moses)Historical record
The connection
The Quran tells many stories also found in the Torah: Adam, Noah's flood, Abraham, Joseph and his brothers, Moses and Pharaoh. It usually tells them briefly, as if listeners already knew them, and draws moral lessons. Muslims believe the Quran restates the original message given to Moses, which they hold was later altered.
When and where
Arabia, 610–632, where Jewish tribes lived in Medina and other oases and biblical stories were known among Arabs.
Historical evidence
Comparing the texts: the Quran names the Torah (Tawrat) 18 times and shares many biblical plots, sometimes with details found in Jewish oral tradition (Midrash) rather than the Bible.
Questions and debates
Muslims hold the parallels come from the same divine source; historians debate how biblical and Jewish lore reached Arabia, whether through Jews, Christians or oral storytellers.
▸Muhammad received, Muslims believe, The QuranFaith & scripture
The connection
Muslims believe the angel Gabriel first came to Muhammad in 610 in the cave of Hira near Mecca, commanding 'Recite!', and brought God's words to him in portions over 23 years. Muhammad recited them to followers, who memorized them and wrote them on parchment, bones and palm stalks.
When and where
Mount Hira, near Mecca, in 610 by tradition, then Mecca and Medina until 632; the first verses revealed are believed to be sura 96:1–5.
How do we know?
A matter of faith: history confirms Muhammad recited the Quran, and early manuscripts support its early date, but history cannot test its divine origin.
Questions and debates
Muslims hold that Muhammad could not read or write, for them a sign of the Quran's miraculous origin; secular scholars debate what the Quran's term ummi meant.
▸The Quran is the scripture of IslamHistorical record
The connection
For Muslims the Quran is God's literal speech, the final revelation, and the supreme source of belief, worship and law. It is recited in Arabic in every prayer, memorized by millions, and read in full during Ramadan. Every Islamic school of thought claims to be grounded in it.
When and where
From the first revelation in 610 onward; standard text around 650; today's standard printed text descends from the Cairo edition of 1924.
Historical evidence
Universal Muslim practice, the earliest manuscripts, and Islamic law and theology, which all cite the Quran as their first source.
Questions and debates
Muslims debate literal versus contextual interpretation today; in the 800s, theologians fiercely argued whether the Quran was created or eternal.
▸Hadith collections and Sharia law builds on The QuranHistorical record
The connection
The Quran has a few hundred verses with legal content but gives few details; it commands prayer without saying exactly how. Hadith fill the gaps, recording how Muhammad prayed, fasted, traded and judged. Sunni jurists treat the Quran as Sharia's first source, the Prophet's Sunna as the second, then scholarly consensus and analogy.
When and where
Medina, Kufa, Baghdad and Central Asia, 700s-900s; the jurist al-Shafii (d. 820) set out this ranking of sources in his Risala.
Historical evidence
Legal manuals of every school begin from Quranic verses, then hadith; al-Shafii's Risala explains the method explicitly.
Questions and debates
A small 'Quranist' minority rejects hadith altogether, and scholars debate how much early law came from local custom before it was linked to scripture.