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Moses
c. 13th century BC (traditional dating)· Founder, prophet or teacher· Judaism, Christianity & Islam
Faith & scriptureHeld by believers on faith and scripture; history can neither confirm nor rule it out.
The prophet who, the Bible teaches, led the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and received God's law at Mount Sinai.
See it on the World Religions map →What it is
According to the Book of Exodus, Moses was born to Hebrew slaves in Egypt, hidden in a basket on the Nile and raised by Pharaoh's daughter. God spoke to him from a burning bush and sent him to demand his people's freedom. After ten plagues he led them out, through the parted sea, to Sinai, where he received the law. He guided them for 40 years in the wilderness and died within sight of the promised land.
Why it matters
Judaism honors him as its greatest prophet and lawgiver; Christians revere him and the Quran names him more than any other prophet. His story of liberation and law shaped ideas of freedom worldwide.
Life, legacy and sources
Known only from scripture: the Torah, later Jewish tradition, the New Testament and the Quran. No Egyptian record mentions him, so history can neither confirm nor rule out his life.
Questions and debates
Whether a historical Moses existed is debated. His Egyptian-sounding name, as in pharaohs like Thutmose ('born of Thoth'), hints that the tradition has real Egyptian roots.
Inside this (2)
Connections (5)
▸Moses renewed The covenant between God and Abraham's descendantsFaith & scripture
The connection
The covenant began, scripture teaches, as God's promise to Abraham of land and descendants. At Sinai God renewed it with the whole people through Moses, adding the law: Israel would keep God's commandments, and God would be their God. The people agreed, and Moses sealed it with sacrifice.
When and where
Set at Mount Sinai (also called Horeb) after the Exodus, by tradition in the 13th century BC; told in Exodus 19–24 and recalled in Deuteronomy.
How do we know?
Scripture only; history can neither confirm nor rule out the event. Scholars note its form resembles ancient treaties between overlord kings and their vassals.
Questions and debates
Whether that treaty form reflects Late Bronze Age Hittite models or Assyrian treaties of the 600s BC is debated, which bears on when the texts were written.
▸Moses led The Exodus from EgyptFaith & scripture
The connection
The Bible teaches that God chose Moses to confront Pharaoh, announce the ten plagues and lead the Israelites out of Egypt. He stretched his staff over the sea to part it, then guided the people through the desert toward Canaan, pleading with God for them when they rebelled.
When and where
Egypt and Sinai, set by tradition in the 13th century BC, or about 1446 BC by biblical reckoning; told in the Book of Exodus.
How do we know?
Scripture alone records the link; no Egyptian source mentions Moses or the Exodus, so history can neither confirm nor rule it out.
Questions and debates
Scholars debate whether a historical leader stands behind the story, and whether the Moses and Exodus traditions were originally separate and joined later.
▸Moses received Ten Commandments at Mount SinaiFaith & scripture
The connection
The Bible teaches that Moses climbed Mount Sinai and spent 40 days with God, receiving the commandments on stone tablets written 'with the finger of God'. Finding the people worshiping a golden calf, he smashed the tablets, then returned to receive a second set.
When and where
Mount Sinai, by tradition in the 13th century BC; Exodus 19–34. Jebel Musa in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula is the traditional site.
How do we know?
Scripture only, a matter of faith. Saint Catherine's Monastery at Jebel Musa, built in the 500s AD, preserves the tradition of the site.
Questions and debates
Where Sinai was: candidates include Jebel Musa, peaks in Arabia and sites in the Negev. When the commandments were written down is also debated.
▸Moses is traditionally the author of The Torah (Five Books of Moses)Faith & scripture
The connection
Jewish and Christian tradition long held that Moses wrote the five books as God dictated, except perhaps the final verses describing his death. Orthodox Judaism still teaches this, which is why the Torah is called 'the Five Books of Moses'.
When and where
The attribution appears in later biblical books, the New Testament ('the law of Moses') and the Talmud, compiled around AD 500.
How do we know?
Faith tradition; the Torah never says Moses wrote all five books, though Deuteronomy says he wrote down 'this law'. From the 1600s Spinoza and others noted anachronisms; most scholars now see multiple authors.
Questions and debates
How much, if anything, traces back to a historical Moses, and how believers reconcile divine origin with critical scholarship, remain open questions.
▸Moses is the most-mentioned prophet in The QuranHistorical record
The connection
Moses, Musa in Arabic, is named about 136 times in the Quran, more than any other person. The Quran retells his birth, God speaking to him from the burning bush, his confrontation with Pharaoh and the Exodus, presenting him as a model prophet whose struggle with a proud ruler parallels Muhammad's with Mecca's elite.
When and where
In suras revealed, by Muslim tradition, at Mecca and Medina between 610 and 632, especially suras 7, 20, 26 and 28.
Historical evidence
Counting the name Musa in the Arabic text gives about 136 mentions, against about 69 for Abraham and 25 for Jesus.
Questions and debates
Scholars study why some details differ from the Bible, such as Pharaoh's wife, not his daughter, adopting baby Moses; Muslims see the Quran's versions as direct revelation.