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Roman persecution of Christians
Nero from July AD 64; empire-wide under Decius (250) and Diocletian (303–311)· Event· Bible story & events
Historical recordConfirmed by archaeology, outside sources or contemporary records.
Rome punished Christians on and off for 250 years, first under Nero in AD 64, then empire-wide under Decius and Diocletian, until toleration in 311–313.
See it on the Bible & Christianity map →What it is
After the Great Fire of Rome in July 64, Nero blamed the Christians and had many executed in public spectacles (Tacitus, Annals 15.44). For two centuries persecution was mostly local and sporadic: Christians who refused to sacrifice to the gods or for the emperor could be put to death. Decius (250) ordered everyone to sacrifice and obtain a certificate. Diocletian's 'Great Persecution' (303–311) destroyed churches and scriptures. Galerius ended it in 311; the Edict of Milan followed in 313.
Why it matters
Martyrs' courage became central to Christian identity and drew converts; Tertullian wrote that 'the blood of Christians is seed'. Quarrels over Christians who gave in shaped church discipline.
Sources and history
Roman sources confirm it: Tacitus, Suetonius, and Pliny the Younger's letter to Emperor Trajan (about AD 112) asking how to try Christians. Dozens of sacrifice certificates from Decius's reign survive on papyrus from Egypt.
Questions and debates
Total deaths are uncertain; estimates vary from a few thousand to tens of thousands. Some historians argue later martyr stories exaggerated how often and how fiercely Rome persecuted.
Inside this (1)
Connections (5)
▸Simon Peter, leader of the apostles was martyred, tradition says, in Roman persecution of ChristiansMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Early tradition says Peter came to Rome and was killed in Nero's persecution after the fire of AD 64. Origen (about 230), quoted by Eusebius, says he was crucified head-down at his own request; Jerome later added that he felt unworthy to die as Jesus did. John 21:18–19 already hints at the death by which he would 'glorify God'.
When and where
Rome, about AD 64–68; tradition places his tomb on the Vatican Hill, beneath today's St Peter's Basilica.
How do we know?
No record from the time. 1 Clement (about AD 96) mentions his martyrdom, Ignatius (about 110) links him to Rome, and Gaius, a Roman, around 200 pointed to his 'trophy' on the Vatican.
Questions and debates
A few scholars doubt Peter ever reached Rome. Excavations in the 1940s found a 2nd-century shrine under St Peter's; whether bones found there are his is unproven.
▸Paul the Apostle was executed in Rome, tradition says, during Roman persecution of ChristiansMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Acts ends with Paul under house arrest in Rome for two years, preaching freely while awaiting trial before the emperor (28:30–31). Tradition holds that he was beheaded, the death reserved for a Roman citizen, under Nero, around the same time as Peter.
When and where
Rome, about AD 64–67; tradition places his execution at Tre Fontane and his tomb on the road to Ostia, now the Basilica of St Paul Outside the Walls.
How do we know?
No record from the time. 1 Clement (about AD 96) mentions his witness 'before rulers', and Eusebius (about 325) dates his death to Nero's reign.
Questions and debates
Was Paul freed and did he reach Spain before dying, as 1 Clement's 'limits of the west' may hint? A sarcophagus under his basilica has bones dated to the 1st or 2nd century.
▸Book of Revelation was written to Christians facing Roman persecution of ChristiansMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
John writes from Patmos 'because of the word of God' (1:9) to churches under pressure. He names Antipas, 'killed among you' at Pergamum (2:13). 'Babylon', drunk with the blood of the saints and seated on seven hills (17:6–9), is widely read as Rome, and the beast demanding worship as the emperor cult.
When and where
Roman Asia (western Turkey), around AD 95 under Domitian, or possibly about 68 after Nero's persecution.
How do we know?
The evidence is internal: the coded references to Rome and Nero. Outside sources for a wide persecution under Domitian are thin.
Questions and debates
Many scholars now think the pressure was local, such as social pressure to join emperor worship, rather than an empire-wide campaign, and that John perceived a looming crisis.
▸Early martyrs: Ignatius, Polycarp, Perpetua died in Roman persecution of ChristiansHistorical record
The connection
Each died in local action, not an empire-wide campaign. Trajan's rule (c. 112) was that Christians should not be hunted down, but if accused and they refused to sacrifice to the gods, they should be punished, often by death. Ignatius was condemned under Trajan, Polycarp after refusing to swear by the emperor, Perpetua under Septimius Severus.
When and where
Antioch and Rome (c. 107–110), Smyrna, now İzmir (c. 155), and Carthage, now in Tunisia (203).
Historical evidence
Pliny the Younger's letter to Trajan about Christians, and Trajan's reply, survive (Letters 10.96–97), alongside the martyrs' own letters and accounts.
Questions and debates
The legal basis is debated: was there a general law against Christians, as Tertullian implies, or only Trajan's case-by-case rule? A late claim that Severus banned conversion is widely doubted.
▸Roman persecution of Christians ended with Edict of Milan: tolerance for ChristiansHistorical record
The connection
Diocletian's Great Persecution, from February 303, destroyed churches, burned scriptures and arrested clergy, but failed to stamp the faith out. The dying emperor Galerius halted it by an edict of toleration in April 311. The Milan agreement of 313 went further, granting full freedom of worship and returning seized property.
When and where
Nicomedia, the eastern capital (303); Serdica, now Sofia (311); Milan (313).
Historical evidence
Lactantius, who lived through it, quotes both the 311 and 313 texts; Eusebius's Church History, Books 8–10, describes the persecution as an eyewitness.
Questions and debates
Deaths in the Great Persecution are uncertain; estimates vary, often in the low thousands. Licinius later harassed eastern Christians again around 320, so the end was not entirely clean.