Battles & Wars › Greece, Rome & Han › Greco-Persian Wars
Xerxes I of Persia
reigned 486–465 BC· Person· Middle East & Africa
Well documentedSolid records, physical evidence or scientific consensus.
Persian King of Kings who led the huge 480 BC invasion of Greece, burning Athens but seeing his fleet beaten at Salamis.
See it on the Battles & Wars map →What happened
Son of Darius I, Xerxes inherited the empire and the plan to punish Athens for aiding the Ionian revolt and for Persia's defeat at Marathon. After crushing revolts in Egypt and Babylon, he bridged the Hellespont with boats and dug a canal through the Athos peninsula. His army forced Thermopylae and burned Athens, but his fleet lost at Salamis and he went home. His general Mardonius was beaten at Plataea in 479 BC. Xerxes was murdered in 465 BC.
Why it matters
His failed invasion kept Greece independent, opened Athens's golden age and naval empire, and fixed Persia as the villain in Greek, and later Western, memory.
Legacy and how we know
Herodotus's Histories; Xerxes's own inscriptions at Persepolis, much of which he built; the Athos canal, traced by modern survey; and Persian administrative tablets.
Still debated
His army's size: Herodotus says over 2.6 million men, but modern estimates run from about 100,000 to 300,000. Greek sources likely exaggerate his cruelty and vanity.
Connections (4)
▸Xerxes I of Persia led the great invasion of Greece in the Greco-Persian WarsWell documented
The connection
Darius I's first expedition failed at Marathon in 490 BC. Xerxes made the second one of the largest operations of the ancient world, combining a huge army, a fleet of several hundred to over 1,000 ships, a bridge of boats across the Hellespont, and supply depots prepared years ahead.
When and how
Greece, 480–479 BC: Thermopylae, Artemisium, the burning of Athens and Salamis, then Plataea and Mycale in 479 BC.
How we know
Herodotus describes the campaign in detail; the Athos canal and Persian destruction debris on the Athenian Acropolis confirm key parts.
Debates and open questions
Persia's goals are debated: full conquest of Greece, or punishing Athens and securing the frontier. Persian sources say little about the war.
▸Xerxes I of Persia forced the pass at the Battle of ThermopylaeWell documented
The connection
After two days of failed frontal attacks, even by his elite Immortals, Xerxes learned of a mountain path from a local Greek, Ephialtes. He sent the Immortals around it overnight, trapping the Greek rearguard and opening the road to central Greece and Athens.
When and how
Thermopylae, August 480 BC; the Immortals under the general Hydarnes took the Anopaea path.
How we know
Herodotus tells it; the path's general route can still be traced in the mountains above the pass, though details are disputed.
Debates and open questions
Persian losses are unknown; Herodotus's figure of 20,000 is likely exaggerated. Ephialtes's betrayal may be partly legend.
▸Xerxes I of Persia watched his fleet's defeat at the Battle of SalamisWell documented
The connection
Xerxes chose to fight the Greek fleet in the narrow strait of Salamis, near Athens, perhaps lured by a false message from the Athenian leader Themistocles. In the cramped water his larger fleet lost its advantage. Xerxes watched from a throne on the shore, then went home, leaving an army under Mardonius.
When and how
The strait between Salamis island and the mainland, west of Athens, September 480 BC.
How we know
Herodotus, and the playwright Aeschylus, who probably fought there and staged 'The Persians' in 472 BC, describe Xerxes watching the defeat.
Debates and open questions
Whether Themistocles's message really lured Xerxes into battle, and how big each fleet was, are debated.
▸Ancient ciphers (Spartan scytale, Caesar cipher) smuggled to Sparta a warning about Xerxes I of PersiaDebated
The connection
Herodotus says Demaratus, an exiled Spartan king living at the Persian court, learned of Xerxes's invasion plan. He scraped the wax off a writing tablet, wrote the warning on the wood beneath, and covered it with fresh wax so it passed the guards as a blank tablet.
When and how
From Persia to Sparta, around 484–481 BC. Herodotus says Gorgo, wife of Leonidas, guessed that the wax must be scraped off.
How sure are we?
Only Herodotus tells the story, and he himself was unsure of Demaratus's motives; it may be partly embellished.
Debates and open questions
Whether the warning really happened, and whether it changed Greek preparations, is unknown; the Greeks had other signs that Xerxes was coming.