Battles & Wars › Modern conflicts
Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm)
January 17 – February 28, 1991 (after Iraq invaded Kuwait, August 1990)· War· Middle East & Africa
Well documentedSolid records, physical evidence or scientific consensus.
A US-led coalition of about 35 nations drove Iraq's army out of Kuwait with a five-week air campaign and a 100-hour ground war.
See it on the Battles & Wars map →What happened
On August 2, 1990, Saddam Hussein invaded and annexed Kuwait. The UN Security Council authorized force, and the US assembled a coalition of about 35 nations, including Arab states, with nearly 1 million troops. From January 17, 1991, aircraft and cruise missiles hit Iraqi forces and infrastructure. The ground war began February 24 and ended after 100 hours. Retreating Iraqi troops set hundreds of Kuwaiti oil wells on fire. Coalition deaths were about 300; estimates of Iraqi military deaths run from 20,000 to 35,000.
Why it matters
It showcased precision-guided weapons and stealth aircraft, confirmed US dominance after the Cold War, and left Saddam in power, setting up the 2003 Iraq War.
How we know
UN Security Council resolutions (notably 678), US Defense Department reports, coalition records, satellite imagery and live television coverage, notably by CNN.
Still debated
Whether the coalition should have pushed on to Baghdad, and the causes of 'Gulf War illness' in many veterans, remain debated.
Inside this (3)
Connections (8)
▸Iran–Iraq War left Iraq indebted, helping cause Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm)Mostly agreed
The connection
The eight-year war left Iraq owing an estimated $80 billion or more, much of it to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, with a huge army and a shattered economy. Saddam demanded debt relief, accused Kuwait of overproducing oil and drilling into a shared border oil field, then invaded in August 1990.
When and how
Baghdad and Kuwait, 1988–1990; an OPEC dispute over oil output and prices, and the Rumaila oil field straddling the border.
How sure are we?
Iraqi statements at the time, US and Arab diplomatic records, and Iraqi documents captured after 2003 describe the debt and oil grievances.
Debates and open questions
Whether mixed US signals, such as Ambassador April Glaspie's July 1990 meeting with Saddam, encouraged him to invade is debated.
▸Fall of the Berlin Wall cleared the way for a UN coalition in Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm)Mostly agreed
The connection
With the Cold War ending, the Soviet Union, once Iraq's main arms supplier, did not veto UN action. For the first time in decades the Security Council's permanent members largely agreed, authorizing force against Iraq in Resolution 678, and the US could move forces from Europe to the Gulf.
When and how
UN Security Council, New York, November 29, 1990; the US VII Corps moved from Germany to Saudi Arabia in late 1990.
How sure are we?
Security Council voting records show Soviet support and China's abstention; US deployment records document forces sent from Europe.
Debates and open questions
The Wall itself did not cause the war; the link runs through the wider Cold War thaw, and how much Soviet cooperation mattered is debated.
▸Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) set up the confrontation behind Iraq WarMostly agreed
The connection
The 1991 war freed Kuwait but left Saddam Hussein in power. Twelve years of UN sanctions, no-fly zones, weapons inspections and periodic US and British air strikes followed. Saddam's obstruction of inspectors fed suspicion that he still hid banned weapons, which became the main public case for the 2003 invasion.
When and how
Iraq and the UN, 1991–2003. Inspectors left in 1998 before US–British strikes; a 1998 US law made regime change official policy; UN Resolution 1441 (2002) gave Iraq a 'final opportunity'.
How sure are we?
UN Security Council resolutions, inspectors' reports, and US and British government documents that cite Iraq's post-1991 defiance as grounds for war.
Debates and open questions
Whether 2003 was the unfinished business of 1991 or a new choice driven by 9/11 and ideology is debated; some officials had sought Saddam's removal since the 1990s.
▸Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) showcased the precision weapons behind Drones and precision strikeWell documented
The connection
Television showed laser-guided bombs and cruise missiles hitting single buildings in Baghdad, persuading militaries worldwide that precision could replace mass. Under a tenth of the bombs dropped were guided, but they did much of the damage. The US then invested heavily in GPS guidance, satellites and sensors that later armed drones relied on.
When and how
Iraq and Kuwait, January–February 1991: F-117 stealth fighters, Tomahawk missiles, and the Navy's Pioneer scout drone, to which some Iraqi soldiers famously surrendered.
How we know
The US Gulf War Air Power Survey (1993) and a 1996 General Accounting Office review, which also found the precision weapons' effectiveness had been overstated.
Debates and open questions
How decisive precision really was is debated; Iraq's army was also broken by conventional bombing, isolation and poor morale.
▸Desert Storm air campaign opened Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm)Well documented
The connection
The air campaign was the first phase of the Gulf War's fighting. For five and a half weeks it weakened Iraq's defenses and army so the ground offensive could follow. It began only after Iraq ignored a UN deadline of January 15, 1991, to leave Kuwait.
When and how
Iraq and Kuwait, from the early hours of January 17, 1991, under US Central Command; air forces of the US, Britain, France, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Italy and others.
How we know
UN Security Council Resolution 678 set the deadline; coalition orders, strike logs and live CNN broadcasts from Baghdad document the start.
Debates and open questions
Whether more time for UN sanctions could have forced Iraq out without war was argued in Congress, which authorized force by narrow votes (Senate 52–47).
▸Desert Storm ground war and the Battle of 73 Easting ended, after about 100 hours, the Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm)Well documented
The connection
After five and a half weeks of bombing, the coalition launched its ground offensive on February 24. Within about 100 hours Iraqi forces were routed and Kuwait freed, and President George H. W. Bush declared a ceasefire, ending the fighting with the UN's goal achieved.
When and how
Kuwait and southern Iraq, February 24–28, 1991; the ceasefire took effect at 8 a.m. local time on February 28; terms were agreed at Safwan, Iraq, on March 3.
How we know
Military logs, Bush's televised announcement and the filmed Safwan talks document the end; UN Security Council Resolution 687 set the formal terms.
Debates and open questions
Whether stopping at 100 hours, partly over images of the bombed 'Highway of Death', let too much of the Republican Guard escape is still debated.
▸Norman Schwarzkopf commanded coalition forces in Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm)Well documented
The connection
As head of US Central Command, Schwarzkopf moved to Saudi Arabia in August 1990, built up a defense of the kingdom (Desert Shield), then commanded the coalition's air and ground offensive in 1991, sharing command with Saudi Prince Khalid bin Sultan, who led the Arab forces.
When and how
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, August 1990 – spring 1991; working under Joint Chiefs chairman Colin Powell and Defense Secretary Dick Cheney.
How we know
Official orders, his televised briefings, and memoirs by Schwarzkopf, Powell and Prince Khalid document his role.
Debates and open questions
Relations with Washington were tense at times; historians weigh how much credit belongs to him versus his air and ground commanders and planners.
▸Raytheon (radar magnetrons to the Patriot missile) made the Patriot missiles fired in the Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm)Well documented
The connection
Raytheon's Patriot was built to shoot down aircraft and was hastily upgraded to hit ballistic missiles. In 1991 Patriots fired at Iraqi Scud missiles aimed at Saudi Arabia and Israel. Early claims of near-total success fell under scrutiny. At Dhahran, a software timing error stopped one battery from tracking a Scud that killed 28 American soldiers.
When and how
Saudi Arabia and Israel, January–February 1991; US Army Patriot batteries; the Dhahran barracks strike, February 25, 1991.
How we know
US Army statements, congressional hearings in 1992, and Government Accountability Office reports, including one on the Dhahran software failure.
Debates and open questions
Success rates remain disputed: the Army later claimed about 70% in Saudi Arabia, while critics such as MIT's Theodore Postol argued few warheads were destroyed.