Battles & Wars › Medieval wars › Early Muslim conquests
Greek fire
c. 672 (Byzantine Empire); recipe now lost· Invention or discovery· Weapons, armor & warships
Mostly agreedGood evidence; some details, dates or numbers uncertain.
A secret Byzantine incendiary liquid, sprayed from tubes on warships, that kept burning on water; its exact recipe is lost.
See it on the Battles & Wars map →What happened
Byzantine writers credit Kallinikos, a refugee architect from Syria, with inventing it around 672. Crews probably heated the liquid in a sealed vessel, pressurized it with a pump and sprayed it through a bronze tube at enemy ships, where it ignited and burned on the sea. It helped defeat Arab fleets attacking Constantinople in the 670s and in 717–718, and Rus' raiders in 941. The formula was a state secret known to a few families and was eventually lost.
Why it matters
It gave Byzantium a decisive edge at sea for centuries and helped Constantinople survive sieges whose outcome could have changed the history of Europe.
How we know
Byzantine chronicles such as Theophanes; Emperor Constantine VII's instruction to keep the recipe secret; Arab and Rus' accounts; a picture in the illustrated Madrid Skylitzes chronicle; and modern test reconstructions.
Still debated
Its ingredients are unknown; most scholars think it was based on crude oil from the Black Sea region, perhaps mixed with resins. How much it decided specific battles is debated.
Connections (3)
▸Greek fire turned back Arab fleets during the Early Muslim conquestsMostly agreed
The connection
Umayyad Arab fleets attacked Constantinople in the 670s and again in 717–718. Byzantine ships spraying Greek fire burned many of the attackers' vessels. Together with the city's walls, a harsh winter and Bulgar help in 718, it helped stop the Arab advance into southeastern Europe.
When and how
The Sea of Marmara around Constantinople, the 670s and 717–718; Emperors Constantine IV and Leo III against Umayyad fleets.
How sure are we?
The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes credits Greek fire with the victories; Arab sources confirm the failed attacks but say less about the weapon.
Debates and open questions
Some scholars doubt the 670s attack was one long siege, and how much Greek fire, versus walls, weather and supply problems, saved the city is debated.
▸Greek fire burned Rus' raiding ships (941) in the Viking raids and conquestsWell documented
The connection
The Rus', Scandinavian-led warriors and traders based in Kyiv, attacked the Byzantine coast near Constantinople in 941 under Prince Igor. A makeshift Byzantine squadron of old ships fitted with Greek fire tubes met the fleet and burned much of it. Survivors said the Greeks had lightning from heaven; Igor later signed a treaty with Byzantium.
When and how
The Bosporus and Black Sea coast near Constantinople, June 941; Prince Igor of Kyiv against the Byzantine commander Theophanes.
How we know
Byzantine chronicles, the Rus' Primary Chronicle and the Italian envoy Liudprand of Cremona all describe the fire attack.
Debates and open questions
Medieval figures for the Rus' fleet range from 1,000 to 10,000 ships; the higher figure is surely exaggerated, and the raid's real size is unknown.
▸Greek fire foreshadowed the FlamethrowerMostly agreed
The connection
From about 672, Byzantine ships pumped Greek fire, a burning liquid, through bronze siphons, much like a flamethrower; it helped save Constantinople from Arab sieges. Song China's armies later used a piston pump to spray burning oil. The recipe was lost, so the German flamethrower of 1901 was a fresh invention using compressed gas and petroleum.
When and how
Constantinople, 670s and 717–718; Song China, described in a 1044 manual; Berlin, Richard Fiedler's designs from 1901.
How sure are we?
Byzantine chroniclers such as Theophanes, Emperor Leo VI's military manual, the Chinese Wujing Zongyao, and Fiedler's patents. The link is one of idea, not descent.
Debates and open questions
Greek fire's ingredients are unknown, probably crude oil with resins. Whether China's flame pump owed anything to Byzantium, via Arab traders, is debated.