World Religions › Medieval › Islam
Sufism, Islamic mysticism
8th century – today· Religion or tradition· Judaism, Christianity & Islam
Mostly agreed by scholarsMost historians agree; some details uncertain.
Islam's mystical tradition, seeking direct, loving experience of God through prayer, chanting, poetry and discipline under a master.
See it on the World Religions map →What it is
Early Sufis in 8th-century Iraq, such as Hasan al-Basri and the woman mystic Rabia of Basra, stressed renouncing the world and loving God purely. The name likely comes from suf, the wool robes they wore. From the 1100s Sufis formed orders (tariqas), each tracing a chain of masters back to Muhammad. Practices include dhikr, rhythmic repetition of God's names, and in some orders music and dance, like the Mevlevi 'whirling dervishes' who follow the poet Rumi.
Why it matters
Sufi preachers and traders spread Islam across South and Central Asia, Africa and Indonesia, and Sufi poets such as Rumi and Hafez are still widely read worldwide.
Sources and history
Writings and sayings of early mystics, treatises by al-Qushayri and al-Ghazali, order genealogies, and thousands of active shrines and lodges from Morocco to Indonesia.
Questions and debates
Some Muslims, notably Salafis and Wahhabis, reject shrine visits and saint veneration; scholars debate how much early Sufism drew on Christian monks or Indian ideas.
Connections (4)
▸Sufism, Islamic mysticism is the mystical path of IslamHistorical record
The connection
Sufis see themselves not as a separate sect but as seekers of Islam's inner dimension (ihsan): worshiping God 'as if you see Him', in a hadith's words. Most Sufis also follow Sunni or Shia law. Al-Ghazali (d. 1111) reconciled Sufism with mainstream theology, and orders became part of everyday Muslim life.
When and where
Iraq from the 700s (Basra, Baghdad), spreading across the Muslim world; orders like the Qadiriyya (1100s) and Naqshbandiyya (1300s).
Historical evidence
Al-Ghazali's Revival of the Religious Sciences and other Sufi texts; order genealogies and lodges still active from Senegal to Indonesia.
Questions and debates
Salafi and Wahhabi critics call shrine veneration un-Islamic, and some Sufi shrines have been attacked; how many Muslims belong to Sufi orders is unknown.
▸Sufism, Islamic mysticism mingled in India with Bhakti, the devotional movementMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
In India, Sufi saints and bhakti poets shared ideas: love over ritual, union with the divine, songs in local languages, and scorn for empty religious pride. Kabir, a weaver raised among Muslims, blended both. Sufi qawwali and Hindu devotional singing flourished side by side, and Hindus and Muslims still visit each other's shrines.
When and where
North India, 1200s-1600s, around Chishti Sufis such as Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi and poets such as Kabir (1400s) and Guru Nanak.
How do we know?
Shared themes and vocabulary in Hindi and Punjabi poetry; the Guru Granth Sahib includes hymns by the Sufi Baba Farid; mixed-faith pilgrims visit shrines like Ajmer.
Questions and debates
Whether Sufism shaped bhakti or the two arose separately and later converged is debated; bhakti began in the south centuries before Islam reached India.
▸New Age spirituality draws on the poetry of Sufism, Islamic mysticismMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Rumi, the 13th-century Persian Sufi poet, became a bestseller in America through Coleman Barks's free-verse versions, and his lines on love and longing became staples of New Age gatherings and wellness culture. Earlier, Inayat Khan taught a 'Universal Sufism' in the West, and whirling-dervish performances drew wide audiences.
When and where
Inayat Khan in America and Europe from 1910; Barks's versions from 1976, 'The Essential Rumi' (1995); Mevlevi dervish tours.
How do we know?
Barks's books have sold widely; Inayat Khan's Sufi movement still exists; scholars and critics, such as Rozina Ali in 2017, have documented the trend.
Questions and debates
Critics say popular versions erase Rumi's Islamic faith and Quranic references; others see a legitimate universal reading. Barks himself works from earlier translations, not Persian.
▸Wahhabism opposed many practices of Sufism, Islamic mysticismHistorical record
The connection
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab condemned practices common in Sufi-influenced Islam: venerating saints, visiting tombs for blessings, and asking holy men to intercede with God. He saw them as shirk, associating partners with God; Sufis see them as honoring God's friends. Wahhabi forces destroyed shrines in Arabia, and Saudi-funded teaching has opposed such practices worldwide.
When and where
Najd in central Arabia from the 1740s; Wahhabi forces sacked Karbala's shrines (1802) and razed tombs at Medina's al-Baqi cemetery (1806, and again in 1925).
Historical evidence
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's treatises, Arabian chronicles, Ottoman reports, and photographs of al-Baqi before and after 1925.
Questions and debates
He may not have rejected Sufism wholesale, only certain practices; scholars debate how hostile early Wahhabism was to Sufi spirituality itself.