World Religions › Ancient civilizations › Vedic religion
Rigveda
Composed c. 1500–1200 BC (oral)· Scripture or text· Hindu, Buddhist, Jain & Sikh
Mostly agreed by scholarsMost historians agree; some details uncertain.
The oldest Hindu scripture: 1,028 Sanskrit hymns to the gods, composed about 1500–1200 BC and passed down orally.
See it on the World Religions map →What it is
Arranged in ten books (mandalas), its hymns praise Agni (fire), Indra (storm and war, about a quarter of all hymns) and Soma (the sacred drink), among others. Priestly families composed and memorized them, using techniques that kept the text almost unchanged for 3,000 years. Book 10's Creation Hymn ends in doubt: the one who oversees creation surely knows, 'or perhaps he does not know.' Max Müller's first printed edition appeared from 1849.
Why it matters
It is among the oldest religious texts still in use: its Gayatri Mantra is recited daily by millions of Hindus, and its verses are chanted at weddings.
Sources and history
Living oral recitation traditions; surviving manuscripts are only centuries old, with 30 in Pune on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register (2007); close links to Avestan and other Indo-European languages.
Questions and debates
Its exact date and its composers' origins are debated; some Indian scholars argue for far earlier dates, which most linguists reject.
Connections (2)
▸Rigveda is the oldest scripture of Vedic religionHistorical record
The connection
The Rigveda is the founding text of Vedic religion: 1,028 hymns chanted by priests during fire sacrifices to praise and summon gods like Agni (fire), Indra (storm and war) and Soma (the sacred drink). The later Vedas reuse many of its verses for their rituals.
When and where
The northwest Indian subcontinent, the Punjab or 'land of seven rivers', about 1500–1200 BC; composed by priestly families, with books 2–7 each tied to one family.
Historical evidence
Oral recitation that matches across regions; language very close to Iran's Avestan; a Mitanni treaty of about 1380 BC naming Vedic gods.
Questions and debates
Exact dates are uncertain; some Indian scholars propose far earlier dates, which most linguists reject.
▸Rigveda first names the four classes of Varna and casteHistorical record
The connection
The Purusha hymn (Rigveda 10.90) describes the gods sacrificing a cosmic man: priests (Brahmins) came from his mouth, warriors (Kshatriyas) from his arms, commoners (Vaishyas) from his thighs and servants (Shudras) from his feet. Later law books cited it to ground a ranked social order.
When and where
Book 10 of the Rigveda, among its latest hymns, about 1000 BC, in northwest India.
Historical evidence
The hymn survives in every Rigveda recitation tradition; its late language and placement lead scholars to see it as a later addition.
Questions and debates
How far the four varnas described real society rather than a priestly ideal, and how they relate to jati, the thousands of birth groups of caste in practice.