World Religions › The Axial Age › Jainism
Mahavira
c. 540–468 BC (scholars); 599–527 BC (Jain tradition)· Founder, prophet or teacher· Hindu, Buddhist, Jain & Sikh
Debated by scholarsHistorians and scholars disagree.
The 24th and last tirthankara ('ford-maker') of Jainism, who gave the faith its classic shape in eastern India.
See it on the World Religions map →What it is
Born Vardhamana into a warrior-class family in Bihar, he left home at about 30, Jain tradition says, and spent some 12 years fasting, keeping silence and meditating before reaching kevala, perfect knowledge. He then taught for about 30 years: non-violence toward all living things, truthfulness, not stealing, chastity and owning nothing. Jains see him not as a founder but as the last of 24 teachers; the 23rd, Parshva, may also have been historical.
Why it matters
He organized the community of monks, nuns and laypeople that still exists, about 4.5 million Jains in India today, and made ahimsa a lifelong discipline.
Life, legacy and sources
Jain scriptures such as the Acharanga Sutra and Kalpa Sutra, written down centuries later. Early Buddhist texts also name him, as Nigantha Nataputta, a rival teacher.
Questions and debates
His dates: Jain tradition says 599–527 BC; many scholars prefer about 540–468 BC or later. Digambara and Shvetambara Jains disagree on whether he ever married.
Connections (3)
▸Mahavira reformed JainismMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Jains teach that Mahavira was the 24th and last Tirthankara of our age, renewing an eternal faith last taught by Parshvanatha. After 12 years of severe asceticism he attained omniscience and organized monks, nuns and lay followers into the community that became today's Jainism. Scholars often treat him as its effective founder.
When and where
Magadha, in today's Bihar, India, c. 6th–5th century BC; born near Vaishali and died at Pava.
How do we know?
Buddhist texts name him, as 'Nigantha Nataputta', a rival of the Buddha, confirming he was real; Jain scriptures record his life and teachings.
Questions and debates
Whether he founded Jainism or reformed an older order; scholars often place him about 60 years later than Jain tradition does.
▸Mahavira taught strict Ahimsa: non-violenceMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Jain teaching holds that souls (jiva) exist in humans, animals, plants and even earth, water and fire, and that harming any of them binds karma to one's own soul. Mahavira made non-harming the first of five great vows and practiced it to the extreme: walking carefully, eating only what was offered and, Jain sources say, eventually giving up clothing.
When and where
Bihar and the Ganges plain, about 500 BC; Jain monks and nuns still take the five great vows (mahavratas) today.
How do we know?
The Acharanga Sutra, among the oldest Jain texts, sets out these rules; Buddhist texts note Jain ascetics' extreme care for living things.
Questions and debates
Whether strict ahimsa began with Mahavira or with his predecessor Parshva, about 250 years earlier, is debated; Parshva's existence is likely but unproven.
▸Mahavira was a contemporary of Siddhartha Gautama, the BuddhaMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Mahavira and the Buddha taught in the same region, Magadha and neighboring kingdoms, at roughly the same time, and both came from the shramana movement of wandering renouncers who rejected Vedic sacrifice. Both taught karma, rebirth and liberation, but the Buddha rejected Mahavira's extreme austerity as one-sided.
When and where
Bihar, northeast India, about 500–400 BC; both traditions say King Bimbisara of Magadha and his court supported their teacher.
How do we know?
The Pali Canon names Mahavira as Nigantha Nataputta and describes debates with his followers; Jain sources describe the same kings and towns.
Questions and debates
They probably never met. Their exact dates are uncertain, and which died first is disputed; Buddhist texts say Mahavira did.