World Religions › Classical faiths
Hinduism
Classical form c. 200 BC – AD 500; Vedic roots older· Religion or tradition· Hindu, Buddhist, Jain & Sikh
Mostly agreed by scholarsMost historians agree; some details uncertain.
The world's third-largest religion, a family of traditions rooted in the Vedas, with about 1.2 billion followers, mostly in India and Nepal.
See it on the World Religions map →What it is
Hinduism has no single founder or creed. Most Hindus share belief in Brahman, the ultimate reality; karma and rebirth; dharma; and moksha, liberation. Devotion often centers on Vishnu, Shiva or the Goddess, seen by many as faces of one divine. Its classical form took shape about 200 BC–AD 500, as the epics, Puranas and temple worship largely replaced Vedic fire sacrifice. Practice includes daily puja, festivals like Diwali, and pilgrimage.
Why it matters
About 15% of humanity. It shaped South Asian culture, law and society, and, alongside Buddhism and Jainism, gave the world yoga, meditation traditions and the ideas of karma and rebirth.
Sources and history
Texts from the Rigveda onward, inscriptions, temples from about AD 400, and living practice. The word 'Hindu' comes from Persian, for the people beyond the Indus River.
Questions and debates
Whether 'Hinduism' is one religion or a 19th-century umbrella term for many related traditions is debated by scholars.
Inside this (12)
- Varanasi (Kashi), holiest Hindu city
- Karma and rebirth (samsara)
- Dharma: duty and cosmic order
- Mahabharata and Ramayana epics
- Shiva
- Bhagavad Gita
- Vishnu and his avatars, Rama and Krishna
- Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
- Devi, the Great Goddess (Shakti)
- Bhakti, the devotional movement
- Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedanta
- Hindu reform movements (Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj)
Connections (7)
▸Hinduism is debated as a form of Polytheism: the many gods of the ancient worldDebated by scholars
The connection
Hindus worship many deities, from Ganesha to village goddesses, which outsiders long labeled polytheism. But many Hindu teachings hold that the gods are forms of one supreme reality, Brahman, or that one god, Vishnu or Shiva, is supreme. Scholars use terms like henotheism, devotion to one god while accepting others.
When and where
The debate sharpened in British India in the 1800s, when missionaries attacked 'idol worship' and reformers like Ram Mohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj, 1828) answered by stressing one God.
How do we know?
The Rigveda itself says 'Truth is one; the wise call it by many names' (1.164.46). Practice shows many deities; the texts show the theology behind them.
Questions and debates
Whether 'polytheism', 'monotheism' or neither fits depends on definitions and viewpoint; many Hindus reject the polytheist label, while some accept it.
▸Vedic religion grew into HinduismMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Over many centuries Vedic sacrifice receded while new elements grew: Upanishadic philosophy, the epics (Mahabharata, Ramayana), temple worship and devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu, Shiva and the Goddess. Hinduism kept the Vedas as its highest scripture and Brahmins as priests, but daily practice became very different.
When and where
India, roughly 500 BC to AD 500; key texts include the Bhagavad Gita and the Puranas.
How do we know?
Texts show the shift layer by layer; stone temples and images of the gods become common in the Gupta era (AD 300s–500s).
Questions and debates
Whether to describe the change as continuity or a new religion, and how much came from non-Vedic local cults; 'Hinduism' itself is a later outsiders' label.
▸Karma and rebirth (samsara) underpins HinduismMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Hindu teaching holds that every action has consequences that shape future lives, and that the soul (atman) is reborn again and again in samsara, the cycle of birth and death. This frames Hindu ethics, ritual and the goal of moksha, release from the cycle; it was also long used to explain caste birth as the fruit of past deeds.
When and where
First appears in the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, about 700–600 BC, and assumed by the epics, the Puranas and the Bhagavad Gita.
How do we know?
The doctrine is absent from the earlier Rigveda and appears in the Upanishads, which lets scholars date its arrival; nearly all later Hindu texts presuppose it.
Questions and debates
Whether rebirth came from Vedic priests, from non-Vedic renouncers of the Ganges plain, or even from older Indus-era beliefs is debated.
▸Dharma: duty and cosmic order is a pillar of HinduismMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Dharma is the first of Hinduism's four aims of life, alongside artha (wealth and power), kama (pleasure) and moksha (liberation). It governs rites, family duty, law and caste roles, and is meant to keep society and the cosmos in balance. Many Hindus call their faith Sanatana Dharma, 'the eternal order'.
When and where
Laid out in the Dharma Sutras (about 500–200 BC), the Laws of Manu and the epics; the name 'Sanatana Dharma' was popularized by 19th-century reformers.
How do we know?
The Dharmashastra literature, epics and Puranas treat dharma as central; British-era courts applied it as 'Hindu law', and India codified Hindu family law in the 1950s.
Questions and debates
How much the texts' rigid duties shaped daily life before British courts made them binding law is debated by historians.
▸Yoga Sutras of Patanjali systematized yoga within HinduismMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Meditation and ascetic discipline had been practiced in India for centuries by Hindu, Buddhist and Jain renouncers. The Yoga Sutras gathered these techniques into one compact system, the eight limbs, grounded in Samkhya philosophy. Hindu tradition then counted Yoga as one of its six orthodox schools of philosophy, alongside Vedanta and others.
When and where
India, c. AD 300–450, by a figure known as Patanjali; commentaries by Vyasa, Vachaspati Mishra (900s) and King Bhoja (1000s) followed.
How do we know?
Its terms match earlier Upanishads and Samkhya texts, and later Hindu writers classify Yoga among the six darshanas, or orthodox schools.
Questions and debates
Its many Buddhist parallels lead some scholars to see it as a bridge between traditions; how distinctly Hindu it was at first is debated.
▸Hindu nationalism (Hindutva) defines national identity through HinduismMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Savarkar, himself an atheist, defined Hindutva, 'Hindu-ness', as a national and cultural identity rather than a faith. It includes Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, whose holy lands lie in India, but treats Muslims and Christians as outsiders. Supporters see cultural pride; critics say it equates Indian with Hindu. Many devout Hindus reject it.
When and where
India, Savarkar's 1923 text; RSS from 1925; BJP from 1980; Modi governments since 2014.
How do we know?
Savarkar's text, RSS and BJP statements, election data, and research by scholars such as Christophe Jaffrelot.
Questions and debates
Whether Hindutva expresses Hinduism or distorts it is fiercely argued in India; a 1995 Supreme Court ruling called Hindutva 'a way of life'.
▸Devi, the Great Goddess (Shakti) anchors the Shakta tradition of HinduismMostly agreed by scholars
The connection
Shakta Hindus worship the Goddess, Devi, as the supreme power (shakti) behind the universe, the active energy without which even Shiva is inert. She appears as gentle Parvati and Lakshmi, warrior Durga and fierce Kali. The Devi Mahatmya tells of Durga defeating the buffalo demon and is recited at the Navaratri festival.
When and where
The Devi Mahatmya was composed in northern India about AD 400–600; Shakta worship is strongest today in Bengal, Assam and Nepal, with Durga Puja celebrated widely.
How do we know?
Devi Mahatmya manuscripts, goddess temples such as Kamakhya in Assam, and centuries of festival practice; scholars count Shaktism as Hinduism's third main branch.
Questions and debates
How far goddess worship reaches back, perhaps to Indus Valley figurines, and how many Hindus are primarily Shakta are both uncertain.