Korean History › Three Kingdoms › Baekje
Samhan: the Mahan, Jinhan and Byeonhan confederacies
c. 1st century BC – 3rd century AD· Empire, kingdom or state· Rulers & states
Mostly agreedGood evidence; some details, dates or numbers uncertain.
Three loose confederacies of small chiefdoms in southern Korea, Mahan, Jinhan and Byeonhan, that grew into Baekje, Silla and Gaya.
See it on the Korean History map →What happened
Chinese records of the 3rd century describe the south as Samhan (삼한, 'Three Han'): Mahan in the west, with 54 statelets; Jinhan in the east and Byeonhan along the Nakdong River, with 12 each. People grew rice, held festivals after sowing and harvest, and kept sacred zones called sodo, where fugitives could not be seized. Byeonhan was famed for iron, used like money and sent to Lelang and Japan.
Why it matters
They were the seedbeds of three early states, and 'Samhan' later became a byword for the whole Korean nation.
How we know
The 'Account of the Eastern Barbarians' in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (about 280); excavated sites such as Daho-ri and Gimhae with iron and Han Chinese goods.
Still debated
How organized they were, whether Mahan's 'Jin king' ruled the others, and how they related to King Jun's refugees remain unclear.
Connections (4)
▸Han commanderies (Lelang and others) were supplied with iron by Samhan: the Mahan, Jinhan and Byeonhan confederaciesWell documented
The connection
Lelang and Daifang drew iron from Byeonhan, where, Chinese records say, iron served as currency and was supplied to the two commanderies. In return, Chinese mirrors, coins and writing brushes flowed south, and contact helped southern chiefs grow richer and better organized.
When and how
Byeonhan region along the Nakdong River, 1st century BC–3rd century AD; trade by sea along the west coast.
How we know
The Records of the Three Kingdoms (about 280) describes the iron trade; Han coins, mirrors and brushes were excavated at Daho-ri and Gimhae.
Debates and open questions
Whether this was trade, tribute or taxation, and how much Chinese contact drove state formation in the south, is debated.
▸Wiman Joseon drove the deposed King Jun south to Samhan: the Mahan, Jinhan and Byeonhan confederaciesMostly agreed
The connection
When Wiman seized the throne in 194 BC, King Jun fled south by sea with his attendants to the land of Han and, Chinese records say, called himself King of Han. Korean historians see refugees like his, carrying northern bronze and iron culture, as one ingredient in Samhan's growth.
When and how
From Gojoseon to the Mahan area of southwestern Korea, 194 BC; King Jun and his followers.
How sure are we?
The Weilüe and the Records of the Three Kingdoms record Jun's flight and add that his line soon died out.
Debates and open questions
Where Jun landed (tradition says Iksan), and whether his arrival shaped Mahan or was a minor episode, are debated.
▸Samhan: the Mahan, Jinhan and Byeonhan confederacies included the Mahan statelet that became BaekjeMostly agreed
The connection
Baekje began as Baekje-guk, one of Mahan's 54 statelets, on the Han River. Strengthened by northern immigrants, it absorbed its neighbors one by one, and by King Geunchogo's time in the 4th century it had swallowed most of Mahan.
When and how
Han River basin around Seoul, 1st–4th centuries AD; some southwestern Mahan chiefdoms may have lasted into the 5th–6th centuries.
How sure are we?
The Records of the Three Kingdoms lists Baekje among Mahan's statelets; Mahan-style jar burials persist in South Jeolla, showing gradual absorption.
Debates and open questions
When Baekje fully absorbed Mahan, in 369 or more than a century later, is debated, especially for the Yeongsan River region.
▸Samhan: the Mahan, Jinhan and Byeonhan confederacies included the Byeonhan statelets that became Gaya confederacyMostly agreed
The connection
Gaya grew directly from Byeonhan's 12 statelets along the Nakdong River. Guya-guk at Gimhae became Geumgwan Gaya, and Banno-guk at Goryeong probably became Daegaya, carrying on Byeonhan's iron industry and sea trade with Lelang and Japan.
When and how
Lower Nakdong River and the south coast, 1st–4th centuries AD; Gimhae and Goryeong were key centers.
How sure are we?
The Records of the Three Kingdoms lists Byeonhan's statelets, including Guya; iron-rich burials at Gimhae's Daeseong-dong show continuity into Gaya.
Debates and open questions
When 'Byeonhan' became 'Gaya', and whether Gaya ever acted as one confederacy, are debated.