Korean History › Late Joseon
Manchu invasions of Korea
1627 and 1636–1637· War· Wars & invasions
Well documentedSolid records, physical evidence or scientific consensus.
Two invasions by the Manchu state (Later Jin, then Qing) that forced Joseon to break with Ming and submit.
See it on the Korean History map →What happened
In 1627 (Jeongmyo horan, 정묘호란) Later Jin forces invaded and made King Injo accept a 'younger brother' relationship. In 1636, after Hong Taiji proclaimed the Qing dynasty and Joseon refused to recognize him as emperor, roughly 120,000 troops invaded (Byeongja horan, 병자호란). Injo held out in Namhansanseong fortress for 47 days, then bowed to Hong Taiji at Samjeondo in early 1637. Joseon cut ties with Ming, sent two princes as hostages and paid tribute. Tens of thousands or more were taken captive; estimates vary.
Why it matters
It ended Joseon's formal loyalty to Ming, though many scholars kept it in spirit, seeing Joseon as the last true heir of Chinese civilization (sojunghwa).
How we know
The Sillok, officials' siege diaries, Qing records, and the 1639 Samjeondo victory stele, still standing in Seoul's Songpa district.
Still debated
Whether Injo's court could have avoided war with Gwanghaegun-style diplomacy, and how many captives were taken, are debated.
Inside this (2)
Connections (4)
▸Imjin War (Japanese invasions of Korea) drained Ming, setting the stage for Manchu invasions of KoreaMostly agreed
The connection
Ming China spent huge sums and sent large armies to save Joseon, straining its treasury and pulling troops from its northeast frontier. Meanwhile Nurhaci was uniting the Jurchen tribes of Manchuria; he founded Later Jin in 1616 and beat Ming at Sarhu in 1619. Joseon, grateful to Ming for 'restoring the nation,' was caught between them.
When and how
1592–1619 in Ming China, Manchuria and Korea; a Joseon contingent fought on the losing Ming side at Sarhu in 1619.
How sure are we?
Ming fiscal records and court debates show heavy Korea war costs; Chinese and Korean sources record Nurhaci's rise in the same years.
Debates and open questions
How much the Korean war, versus other Ming troubles like frontier wars, court infighting and revolts, weakened Ming is debated.
▸Gwanghaegun was ousted by pro-Ming rivals, helping provoke Manchu invasions of KoreaMostly agreed
The connection
Gwanghaegun avoided open conflict with the Later Jin. In 1623 Westerner officials overthrew him, citing his killing of a half-brother, his confinement of the queen dowager and his disloyalty to Ming. The new king, Injo, sided openly with Ming, which helped provoke the Later Jin invasion of 1627.
When and how
Spring 1623 coup in Hanyang (Seoul) by Westerner officials; Later Jin invaded in early 1627, partly citing Joseon's support for Ming general Mao Wenlong.
How sure are we?
The coup leaders' own proclamation listed betrayal of Ming among his crimes; Later Jin and Korean records cite Joseon's pro-Ming stance as a cause of war.
Debates and open questions
Whether Gwanghaegun's balancing could have spared Joseon, or Manchu demands for grain, trade and submission made war likely anyway, is debated.
▸Siege of Namhansanseong ended Manchu invasions of KoreaWell documented
The connection
The second Manchu invasion (1636–37) ended when King Injo, besieged in Namhansanseong for 47 days, surrendered at Samjeondo. The terms ended Joseon's loyalty to the Ming: tribute to the Qing, Crown Prince Sohyeon and Prince Bongnim sent as hostages, and Korean troops for Qing campaigns.
When and how
Samjeondo, on the Han River in today's Songpa district of Seoul, February 24, 1637; King Injo and Hong Taiji.
How we know
The Annals of King Injo, Qing records, and the Samjeondo victory stele of 1639, which still stands in Seoul.
Debates and open questions
How many captives were taken north is unknown; estimates range from tens of thousands to far more, and many who returned faced stigma.
▸Manchu invasions of Korea forced tribute to the Qing from JoseonWell documented
The connection
The 1627 invasion forced Joseon into an 'elder–younger brother' pact with the Manchu Later Jin. When its ruler Hong Taiji declared the Qing empire, Joseon refused to accept him as overlord, and he invaded again in 1636. After King Injo's surrender, Joseon cut ties with Ming, sent princes as hostages and paid tribute to Qing until 1895.
When and how
1627 and 1636–1637, from the Yalu to Seoul and Namhansanseong; King Injo and Hong Taiji.
How we know
The Annals of King Injo, Qing records and the Samjeondo surrender stele in Seoul document the terms; tribute missions are recorded for 250 years.
Debates and open questions
Whether Injo's court, which had ousted Gwanghaegun and his balanced diplomacy in 1623, provoked the invasions by siding openly with Ming is debated.