Geopolitics › South Asia › Pakistan
India–Pakistan rivalry and Kashmir
Since 1947; wars 1947, 1965, 1971, 1999· Conflict or rivalry
DisputedContested claims, borders or interpretations.
A rivalry born at Partition in 1947 and centered on Kashmir, producing four wars and repeated crises between nuclear-armed neighbors.
See it on the Geopolitics map →The picture
British India's 1947 partition killed perhaps 200,000 to 2 million people (estimates vary). Kashmir's Hindu maharaja, facing an invasion by Pakistani tribesmen, acceded to India; Pakistan disputes that. War left Kashmir divided along what became the Line of Control: India holds about 55% of the land, Pakistan about 30%, China the rest. Wars followed in 1965, 1971 (creating Bangladesh) and 1999 (Kargil). Both tested nuclear bombs in 1998. An insurgency in Indian Kashmir since 1989 has killed tens of thousands.
Why it matters
It is one of the few places where nuclear-armed states fight openly, and each crisis since 2016 (Uri, Pulwama, Pahalgam) has escalated further and faster.
Key facts and numbers
Partition records, UN Security Council resolutions from 1948, the 1972 Simla Agreement and military histories; casualty figures come from government and independent estimates that differ widely.
What to watch
Disputed: who rightfully holds Kashmir, what Kashmiris themselves want, and how far Pakistan's state controls the militant groups India blames.
Inside this (1)
Connections (2)
▸India contests Kashmir in India–Pakistan rivalry and KashmirFact
The relationship
India's position: all of former Jammu and Kashmir, including the Pakistani-held parts, is Indian by the 1947 accession, and the real problem is Pakistan-backed terrorism. It insists on bilateral talks, rejects mediation, and in 2019 ended Kashmir's autonomy, splitting it into two federally run territories.
Since when and why
Instrument of Accession, October 26, 1947; Simla Agreement 1972; Article 370 revoked August 5, 2019. India blames Pakistan-based groups for attacks including Mumbai 2008 and Pulwama 2019.
How we know
The accession document, Indian parliamentary acts and court rulings; India's Supreme Court upheld the 2019 changes in December 2023.
What to watch
Disputed: whether the 2019 changes brought lasting calm, as India says, or deepened alienation, as critics and Pakistan argue; Kashmiri opinion is hard to measure.
▸Pakistan contests Kashmir in India–Pakistan rivalry and KashmirFact
The relationship
Pakistan's position: Muslim-majority Kashmir should decide its future in the plebiscite promised by UN resolutions, and India holds its part by force. Pakistan administers Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, rejects India's 2019 changes, denies sponsoring militants and welcomes outside mediation.
Since when and why
UN Security Council Resolution 47 (1948); Pakistan raises Kashmir at the UN every year. Founder Jinnah is credited with calling Kashmir Pakistan's 'jugular vein', a phrase Munir repeated in April 2025.
How we know
UN resolutions and Pakistani government statements; Pakistan's 2018–22 grey-listing by the FATF financial watchdog reflected terror-financing concerns.
What to watch
Disputed: how much control Pakistan's military has over groups such as Lashkar-e-Taiba, and whether a plebiscite is still realistic, since its preconditions were never met.